CHAPTER - ONE

INTRODUCTION
Analytical study of position of women in medieval era encircles the
study of problems faced by Indian women for centuries. Specifically during the
period under review. It is an attempt to highlight the contributions of women as
equal counter-parts of their men folk in India.
Women have always been forced to occupy a secondary place in the world
as compared to men although women constitute numerically at least half on the
human race. This secondary standing is not imposed of necessity by “natural
feminine” characteristics rather by strong environmental forces of taboos and
social traditions under the purposeful control of men. Ultimately this
dominance has resulted in general, the failure of women to take proper place of
human dignity as free and independent existents. It is associated with men on a
plan of intellectual and professional equality, a condition which has limited
women’s achievements in many fields. Condition of Women in Ancient
India, After making a survey of the conditions of women in Ancient India,
it becomes clear that women were worshipped during early period of
history. They had equal respect and rights with the men and took part in
social and public gatherings but with the passage of time restrictions were
imposed on women which affected their position adversely. Eating was
banned with women during the period of Smritis and the woman who did not
speak before her elders was praised. As the structure of society was based
on father, several restrictions were put on women and gradually their
rights were confiscated. Now they had become only dependent of men.
According to Manu, "by nature women remain busy in corrupting man.
They carry men to the wrong path by tying him in the shackle of sex, anger and
affection or love."
1
 In the epic Mahabharata, it is also related that the woman is a root
cause of corruption. Even than comparatively the condition of women was
quite good during ancient period but their significance declined with the
passage of time.
Condition of Women during Medieval India the Muslim invaders considered
women only to be a source of recreation and did not give her any
importance. As a result there was a rapid decline in the conditions of
women during Sultanate period and every father wished to marry his
daughter as soon as possible for saving her to be a victim of the lusty
Muslims. Pardah also came in existence due to commencement of Muslim in
India. There was no proper arrangement for the education of women. The
girls of high class family were imparted some education through private
means but the poor girls were deprived of it. The Muslim girls were
completely illiterate because of sternness of Pardah. In fact, women were
confined in the four walls of the house during Sultanate period. As a
result their mental development was blocked. However the economic
condition of Muslim ladies was better in comparison with Hindu ladies for
the former have equal right over the ancestral property like that of male
members of the family. They also had the right of divorce; however the
practice of polygamy has made their life hellish.
The condition of women remained almost same during Mughal
period. In fact the condition of women had become deplorable because of
practice of child marriage, pardah system, and polygamy and sati system.
Liberal Akbar made some efforts to check the system of Sati but he failed to
succeed in too because of the rigidity of the Hindus. Hindus generally had
the practice of having one wife but the royal and noble men were
exceptions to this practice and had traditions of having more than one
2
wives. But every Muslim was allowed to have four wives according
Sharriyat. The traditions of Mutaha (Temporary marriage for fixed
period) made them able to marry again and again. As a result of polygamy,
the condition of Muslim women deteriorated very much they were
subjected to mental and physical tortures. Right of divorce and
remarriage was the only weapon with her to get rid of her difficulties. In Hindu
society that woman was hated who again and again gives birth to daughter and
widowhood was considered a sin of the early karmas and she was tortured
in many ways. However there is reference of learned ladies like Gulbadan
Begum, Nurjahan, Zebunnisa, Mirabai etc. but they all belonged royal and
high families. They not only intervened in administration but also
established their supremacy. Among these women the names of Maham
Anga, Durgavati, Chandbibi, Nurjahan and Tarabai are worth mentioning.
Sir J. N. Sarkar has written about Tarabai that her administrative ability and
power of character saved the country from terrible problems. Besides
administration she was an expert in the art of warfare. The practice of
Jauhar among the Hindu women has been praised by Emperor Jahangir,
He writes in his autobiography Tarikh-I-Jahangiri that Jauhar is that fire
of fame and purity, because of which no illegitimate person could touch
the chastity of women.
Indian society was predominantly a patriarchal society. Many components
like religion, state, customs / taboos did try to restrict women’s independence.
Moreover, the mode of production always determined the status of women.
Since the major source of income in India was agriculture, so one would like to
see her status in this light too.
Women and particularly elite Muslim women did remain behind the
purdah. Source of medieval India are not reflective on women issues. Whatever
3
 little information we do get is basically related to the elite women. One has to
take help from Folk literature, traditions and popular literature to unveil the
contribution and status of the common women.
1.1 Period under Review (1206-1707 A.D)
The period under review is very important for a study of status of
women in Hindustan. The developments which occurred during this period
gave women history a new phase and a new cultural integrity. India is multi-
cultural country where different religions have given different shades to the
social life of women. Influx of Muslim invasions gave a new meaning to the
status of women in India. During this period we see rule of a woman i.e. Rakia
Sultan (1236-1240 AD).
In this research an attempt has been made to unveil the social status of
women, their social customs and domestic interests are specially mentioned to
make the picture clear. It is revealed by the literature and survey of the
documents and sources related to the women of era that very little is known
about the social life of women. Elite classes of Indian women suffered due to
the unchallenged system of pariah, women were confined in secluded places
far from the reach of evil eyes. So much so that no one could get a glimpse of
their faces. Therefore, it appears that contemporary historians avoided public
references to ladies. Their political, religious and literary contribution has been
narrated by the Persian chroniclers without referring to the social positions of
common women. In the present study I would like to probe the attitude of the
rulers, Umbra, and religions towards women and their status in the society.
1.2 Objectives of the Study.
 To determine the status of Indian women according to their resource – fullness
and utility.
 To highlight the contribution of women in various fields.
4
 To evaluate the woman of Medieval India and her miseries due to pariah
system.
 To examine social customs and taboos of that era this made women
subordinate to men.
 To study gender order of Indian society i.e. elite women and common women.
1.3 Literature Survey.
There is more or less connected series of Persian chronicles complied
(translated and edited) by reliable contemporary historians.
1.4. The Foreign Travelers.
The most valuable source of the contemporary social history of India is
to be found in the accounts of foreign travelers. There is continuous line of
these travelers from thirteen to eighteenth century. In fourteenth century lab-b-
Battutah (1953 Baroda), the famous traveler who spent his whole life in
traveling throughout the Muslim world came to Hindustan. Mughal era is much
more fertile for the entrance of foreign travelers on Indian soil. They had given
a vivid description of Indian social life. Thomas Coryat ( 1921 London ),
Joannes Delaet ( 1975 Delhi ) , William Finch ( 1921 London), William Foster
(1914 Hakluyt Society), John Fryer (1917 Edinburgh), Peter Mundy (1975
Delhi) Niccolao Manucci ( 1907-08 London ) , J. Ovington ( 1929 Oxford),
Francoise Pelsaert (1917 Delhi), Sir Thomas Roe ( MCMV Glasgow), Edward
Terry ( 1905 Calcutta), are among some of the travelers have written about
Indian women. Their Primary objective was to promote relations between India
and their native countries but, their contribution to Indian history as well
cannot be denied.
But the irony of the fact is that the account of these travelers exhibits the
collectivity and subjectivity of the women. These accounts depict the picture of
harem ladies in a detailed way but the credibility is quite doubtful because they
5
were not the part of this institution due to strict purdah system. As for as the
matter of common woman is concerned, these travelers defined the daily
routine of the Indian Women.

6
 CHAPTER-TWO
Indian Women through Ages
The birth of female child was considered a bad omen in Indian society.
So women’s position relegated down wards. The ultimate goal of an Indian
woman was marriage. Child marriage was quite popular, especially in the
lower strata of ancient Indian society. Sanskrit Literature mentioned that
various forms of marriages prevailed in ancient India. Social customs like
Niyoga, Sati, incest, polyandry etc. made the life of Indian women miserable.
2.1 Education.
In Ancient times, Vedic education was considered the privilege of males.
In Ancient Indian literature has revealed two types of students (female) as far
as the matter of formal education was concerned. Brahmavadinis and
Badyodvahas, Brahmavadinis, those female students studied religious subjects
up till the age of their marriage. Badyodvahas, were those who acquired greater
knowledge in various faculties, music, dance, art, painting, religion and
philosophy. There were the subjects of woman’s interest in Ancient India1.
2.2 Institution of Marriage.
Marriage was considered a pious ritual and parents were quite conscious
about the marriage of their daughters. Those who failed to marry their
daughters before puberty became the subject of public criticism. Puberty was
the main criteria to set the age of marriage in ancient India. Child marriage was
prevalent for maintaining the chastity of girls as it provided them no chance to
indulge in premarital sex. The custom of child marriage also curtailed the
period of education for woman2. Manu- (law maker) mentioned “a man of thirty
year shall marry a maiden of twelve years” In medieval period Akbar tried to
regulate the age for marriage. References are found for the seven forms of

7
marriage but there is a controversy about the sanctity attached to all these
forms.
2.3 Divorce.
The concept of divorce was hated in ancient India. The sutra Literature
condemns the practice of divorce. “If the marriage vow is transgressed both
husband and wife certainly go to hell. Manu lay down that a man may abandon
his wife in case of serious disease or loss of chastity on her part. On the other
hand he objected that a wife may not leave her husband if he is insane,
impotent and suffering from an incurable disease3.
According to Sirit here are fire cases of legal sanction, where a woman is
allowed to take divorce or remarriage if the husband is missing (Nasht,) dead
Marta becomes an ascetic ( Pravajita), impotent ( Kliba) is degraded from caste
(Patita)4.
Kautilya gives detailed rules of divorce, if a man or the wife hated each
other; divorce was to be granted, if a man apprehending danger from his wife.
Sued for divorce, he had to return to her whatever, presents he had to forfeit
her proprietary rights in her husband’s family however no divorce was
permitted. According to Arthasastra Brahma, Daiva, Arsha and prajapatya
forms of marriage ruled out divorced5.
2.4 Niyoga or levirate.
The custom of having an off-spring from brother-in-law after the death
of husband was known as NIyoga. The reasons for the prevalence of this
custom are not difficult to make out. The woman was everywhere regarded as a
species of property, which passed on to the husband’s family on her marriage.
She was married no doubt, to a person, but also to his family. So if her husband
died his brother or any other nearest relation would take her as wife to get and
raise children from her. This usually happened when a person died without
8
leaving any male issue behind. If he died without a son, it was regarded as a
great spiritual calamity. It was the sacred duty of a brother to see that his sister-
in-law gave birth to a son to perpetuate his brother’s memory 6.The remarriage
of windows was not encouraged in Indian society. It was expected that widows
should lead a life of abstinence, which would earn them salvation and they
could not participate in social or religious activities. Their presence was
considered inauspicious7.
2.5 Sati.
Sati (Devangri word), the feminine of “Sati” may refer to a pious person.
In Pali language sati sati means “mindfulness” and in Buddhism sati refers
usually to awareness and skillful at tentativeness. Sati is a custom which was
performed by Indian women (windows) to burn themselves with the dead
bodies of their husbands. The extreme devotion which was inculcated in the
minds of Indian women for their husbands impelled them to end their lives on
the pyre. The sati was considered a mean to reunion of wife with her dead
husband. This custom was popular among warrior class and royal families of
Northern India. Pregnant women were exempted from Sati8.
Jainism greatly discouraged the custom of Sati. The Jana’s launched the
crusade against this evil custom. Many ladies of this age did not sacrifice
themselves9.
2.6 Women’s Rights.
As far as subservience of woman to man was summed up in Manu Smite
where he stated that a woman should never be independent. As a daughter she
should be under the surveillance of her father, as a wife of her husband and as a
widow of her son10.As far as the matter of woman’s property is concerned we
have the reference of Strachan. Manu-is the earliest writer who gave a

9
comprehensive description of Strachan. According to him it consists of six
varieties:
(1-3) Gifts given by father, mother, and brother at any time
(4) Gifts affection given by the husband subsequent to marriage
(5-6) Husband could not dispose of the property of his wife without her
consent11. Manu described the woman’s right of property that a daughter
deserves1/4 of father’s property. In case of only female off spring woman
enjoyed a share of parents’ property12.Even the widow had the right to maintain
her husband’s property in ancient India. But she had no right to dispose of the
property bequeathed by her dead husband. Women were deprived of concrete
legal rights. Even their evidence was not considered valid .It was no grave
crime to kill a public woman in the eyes of law 13. Upper class woman of Indian
society had the right to choose their husband. It was known as Swayamvara.
The marriage of Sunjugta and Prithviraj is one of the examples of that sort of
marriage.
2.7 Public Women.
Prostitutes (vesyaganika ) were not governed by the rulers and restricted
and bounded by the ancient India Society. Atypical prostitute was beautiful,
wealthy, master of all arts of attraction, enjoyed a position of fame and honour
in ancient Indian society. She was honored by the king and praised by the
learned14.Ambapali of Vaisali an accomplished courtesan, famous in Buddhist
age, was immensely sharp, highly intelligent and expert in all civilized
manners. She freely mixed up with the upper class of her city. Ambapali is said
to have become a Buddhist run and one of the most beautiful poems of the Pali
Canon was attributed to her15.
According to Kautilya, a prostitute was noted for her beauty, youth and
accomplishments. She was appointed as the superintendent of prostitutes
10
having the duties of care and supervision of the palace courtesan. The
inspection of brothels and the collection of earnings from each prostitute she
herself got the salary of 1000 panas (per annum).
Kings and chiefs retained numerous prostitutes in their palaces, who
were salaried servants. They also attended the king’s persons (guests) also.
They accompanied the king wherever he went. Devadasis were another type of
prostitutes associated with temples. Temple prostitution was most common in
the south. The great general of Vikramaditya VI Calukya named Mahadeva,
was accorded as founding a temple in memory of his late mother the most
beautiful prostitute of the country at that time16.
2.8 Polyandry.
Polyandry is reported in the example of Draupdi in ancient India. Five
pandavas had only one common wife in epic “Mahabaharat". But it was not the
common feature of Indian society.17
2.9 Women in Political Activities.
Generally, women activities were confined to the household chores.
Public participation in religious economies was not a common feature. Women
were not the active politicians in ancient India but they had indirect influence
in the political arena.
Draupadi, Kunti, Kausalya are the few examples which revealed how the
chief queen dominated the ruler. Sometimes women had to interfere in the
political set-up when the rightful heir was a minor. Rajput queen, Maha Laxmi,
Raja Allatt’s mother and Hasna Bai, Mokal’s mother were the glaring
examples of Rajput women’s history.18
Even women had trained themselves to use weapons. The reference to
women guard under Chandera Gupta Mauraya speaks of their heroic deeds.

11
2.10 Jauhar.
(Jauhar is a custom in which the enemies tried to burn the Pandavas of
(Mahabaharta) alive. 19
the custom of Jauhar was prevalent among Rajput
woman of India. This coustom was performed when Indian women lost their
male guards in the battle field. They burnt themselves alive to save their
chastity and honour. When Raja Dahir of Sindh was killed during Qasim’s raid
on Sindh, his sister Rani Bai not only prepared her people against Muslims.
She confined the women of the palace inside the castle and addressed them as
followsJai Singh had left us. Arabs are near to conquer us. The only escape for
the women was left to burn them into fire.
Indian women faced many miseries in the form of customs, traditions
and taboos of the society. But in the social, cultural, and political matters they
had an equivalent share before the establishment of Turkish rule in India. In the
economic share the male and female was the joint owners of the household and
property. They helped their husbands in various fields. They took an active part
in agriculture20. They used to make war materials such as bows and arrows.
Women also engaged themselves in weaving, embroidery and basket making.
Some of them were employed in royal palaces for serching21.
The position and status of Indian woman was not disappointing on the
whole. Before the establishment of Muslim rule in Hindustan, Though the
rights and privileges of woman are very from centuries to centuries but in
Indian region she enjoyed privileges as well as her freedom which dwindled in
the feudal soiciety22.
2.11 Dress.
The dress of women in Indus valley civilization consisted of a lower
garment fastened by a girdle as disclosed by its terracottas. The female upper
part of the body was not considered rude or uncovered. In Vedic and Epic age
12
 the prevalent mode of dress consisted of vasahantaram (under garment) and
puridhanam (upper garment)23
Later on, the dress of women was distinctly divided into uttariya,
kancuka and candetaker. The Uttariya covered the upper portion of the body:
Kancuka was a bodice while the candetaka was a sort of petticoat. 24Alberuni
mentioned the usage of Kurtakas (short shirts from shoulders to middle of the
body with sleeves) for females. It had selves both on the right and left sides of
the white dress normally wore by widows. Uniform was prescribed for
Buddhist and Jaines’ nuns normally of red colour25.
2.12 Vesara -Ornaments and cosmetics.
In every age women are very particular to maintain their beauty and
charm. The use of cosmetics and toilets were quite popular even in ancient
India. Cosmetic powder, use of mirror, lotions on face, eyes, teeth, nails, lips
and toes were common. The married women put kumkuma-a round sign on
their foreheads. Women were found of dressing their hair in different
styles26.The use of ornament was popular among both male and female. The
woman’s body was adorned with different ornaments known by specific
names-sikhapasa, sikhajala, muktajala ,(adoring the head and forehead).
One can get an idea through the Ajanta paintings at Udayagirl in Orissa
at Bodhagaya in Bihar, Sanchi in central India. Mathura in U.P. Taxila in
Punjab, Ajanta Elora and Badami in Deccan, Amravati in Madras presidency.
It was found that several sculptures and paintings of women who were over
loaded with the rich variety of ornaments from top to toe.

2.13 Reference.
1. A.L.Basham, The wonder that was India. 1954. London: p.178.

13
2. Ibid
3. A.S Altekar,. The position of women in Hindu civilization opcit, p, 83.
4. Ibid, p.84.
5. kautila Arhasastra(tr)Shamastry 3rd ed.vol.llp.109.
6. Kum kum Roy(Ed) women in early Indian societies.reprint.Delhi 2001, p.65.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Sita Agarwal.Hindu scriptural sanction for crushing of women.2004.
10.Savita vishnoi. Economic status of women in Ancient India. P, 45.
11.A.S Altekar,. The position of women in Hindu civilization opcit,p.220
12.Ibid,p.240
13.A.L.Basham, The wonder that was India, p.186.
14.Ibid, p.183-184.
15.Ibid. p.184.
16.Ibid opcit.p.185.
17.A.S Altekar, The position of women in Hindu civilization opcit, p.114.
18.R.c Mujamdar, (ed )Great women of India .calcuta;p.125-130
19. V, A smith Akbar the great Mugal. Delhi1962.p.71
20. A.S Altekar, The position of women in Hindu civilization opcit, p.179.
21.Ibid;p.182-188
22.Laxmi Devi. Women and development.Delhi:1996, p.42.
23.A.S Altekar, The position of women in Hindu civilization opcit, p.279.
24.Ibid,p.279
25.D.Thomason. India womanhood through ages opcit, p.140.
26.Romila Thapar. Ancient Indian social History Delhi.1978, p.217.
CHAPTER - THREE
WOMEN DURING SULTANATE PERIOD
14
 Turks brought their own heritage in India which they derived from the
Arabs and the Abbasids. It seemed that among them women occupied a
respectable position and they took active part in politics. Some ladies took keen
interest in intellectual sphere, but they were not encouraged in the Indian
society. They contributed a lot in the field of fine arts. The customs Traditions
and practices by the royalty, nobility & Turkish soldiers, modified under the
impact of indigenous conditions1.
The sultans of Delhi had large Harems and a considerable impact of
sultan’s mother, sister and wife showed through the politics. Some of those
royal ladies enjoyed high prestige and were also given high titles. But it was
for the first time that on the basis of sheer competence; even the claim of the
lady to the throne of Hindustan was honored. It indicates the freshness and
robustness of the Turkish mind in thirteenth century which gave full
consideration to the merits of an individual irrespective of her sex ( as it was
the main criterion for the selection of a sovereign ).2
3.1 Women in politics.
The earliest reference of a woman who participated in political activities
during Sultanate is that of Khudavanda-i-Jahan Shah Turkan. She was a
Turkish slave by origin who rose to the status of Chief Queen of Sultan
lltutmish.3 although lltutmish expressed his desire to make Raziya his
successor, yet Shah Turkan decided to manage the nobility in favor of her own
son Rukn-ud-din Firoz Shah.4
She manipulated to put her indolent and pleasure loving son on the
throne of Delhi immediately after the death of her husband (1236 A.D.).Shah
Turkan concentrated all powers in her own hands and even issued royal orders
(Farmans) by her name.5

15
 The cruelest incident “Raziya” managed by this Turkish slave girl,
related to the younger son of Sultan lltutmish named Muizzuddin who was first
blinded and then put to death by her orders .6
She conspired against Raziya to fulfill her ambitious desire. She was
imprisoned by Raziya and her plan to murder Raziya was failed. 7The next lady
who played a significant role in the politics during Sultanate is Raziya, the
accession of Raziya to the throne of Delhi in the year 1236 A.D. heralds a new
era in the history of Sultanate. It asserts the claim of a woman to the office
which was generally considered the monopoly of males. Raziya, was elevated
to the throne solely because of her merits and talents.8
Raziya cleverly exploited the general discontent against her mother rule.
She showed herself in the public clad in red garment customary for the
revolution in the Friday prayer and she appealed for help in the name of the
late Sultan lltutmish.9
Isamil tells us that Raziya entered in an agreement with people. “She
was to be given a chance to prove her abilities and if she did not prove herself
better than men, her head was to be struck off. It was in the midst of chaos and
confusion that Razia asserted her claim for the throne. The Delhi sultanate was
facing internal as well as external crisis.
Thus the inclusion of non-Turkish nobles was used as one of the means
to create a new force to serve her political ends. Jamai Uddin Yaqut, the
Abyssinian slave, received special consideration for being a non – Turk. He
occupied the prestigious office of Amir-I-Akhur (the master of horse) which
according to tradition was enjoyed by Turk nobles. This act of Raziya received
great opposition from Turkish nobles who were being deprived of privileges
and rights by the Sultan. She did all this in order to stabilize the administration,
but her attitude later on sounded the death knell of her regime.10
16
 Yaqut advised, assisted and accompanied her on various occasions 4as he
was a blind supporter, and a well wisher of his mistress. He became very close
to her. Minhaj, the contemporary historian wrote nothing about the intimacy
between the casts a slur upon their relationship11.
Raziya had great political significance as a ruler in the history of Delhi
Sultanate. It is surprising that she did not find a place in the list of sultans
which was prepared by the order of Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq.These
omissions by Sutan Firoz Shah Can in no way under – mine her contribution in
stabilizing the Turkish Empire in India. Rakia stands as the only example of a
woman who wielded royal power during the sultanate.
Another ambitious lady of Sultanate Harem was known as Malika-I-
Jahan, the wife of Sultan Jalal-up-Din Khalji and mother-in-law- of Sultan Ala-
ud-Din Khaliji. She enjoyed a complete influence over her husband 4 as the wife
of Khaliji Sultan Jalal-ud-Din Khalji.12
Malika–I-Jahan was responsible for creating problems and
misunderstanding between Ala-ud-Din Khalji and his wife. Ala-un-Din was
placed in a miserable condition when she incited her daughter to ignore her
husband. Ala-ud-Din never complained the Sultan about the misdeeds of
Malika-I-Jahan. It seems that he did not want to hurt to the sentiments of his
humble father –in-law. Malika Jahan warned her old and vacillating husband
about Ala-ud-Din alleged intention of establishing and independent principality
in some remote corner of the country. But Sultan Ala-ud-Din earnest desire
was to settle down at a remote place so that he could not see his wife and
mother in law.13The ladies of Lodi dynasty were quite active in politics. Shama
Khatun, the chief queen of Bahlol Lodi instigated her husband to release her
brother (Qutab Khan) who was taken as captive by Sultan Mohammad Shqrqi

17
of Jaunpur. Shams Khatun urged sultan Bahlol Lodi not to opt for a ceasefire
until and unless her brother was freed.
Bidi Amba, the Hindu wife of Sultan Bahlol managed all circumstances
in favor of her son Sikandar Lodi because he was born of a Hindu lady with the
help of Afghan nobility Sikandar Lodi succeeded. Ladies of sultanate Harem
seem very active in the political life of 15 century also. Bidi Matto (widow of
Sultan Shah Lodhi, Uncle of Bahlol Lodi) once defended the Delhi fort against
the armies of Sultan Mahmood Sharqi by a strange strategy. She got Afghan
women dressed in men uniform and posted them in the parapet, thus deceiving
the besiegers by a false shadow of numbers .14
The role of Harem Delhi Jaunpur relation cannot be ignored in the
political life of this period. In 1437 A.D. when Mahmood Sharqi marched
against Mohammad Shah the later persuaded for peace and gave his daughter
Bibi Raji in marriage to Ibrahim’s son. When Mehmood ascended the throne of
Delhi, Bibi Raji played an important role in the political arena. The battle of
Neria 1462 A.D. was instigated by her. She told her husband. “If he did not
lead the army against the enemy, she should herself tie quiries to her waist and
marched as the head of army”15.
The influence of women in political sphere during the Sultanate period
varied. Except Raziya there was not any example of woman sovereign. They
played an important role as Sultan’s wife mother and sister, In the matter of
succession, war and peace. They have strengthened the Sultanate by virtue of
their tact, intelligence and diplomacy.
3.2 Matrimonial Alliances.
During Sultanate period some Hindu ladies were married with Sultans, e.
Alu ud-Din’s marriage with Kamala Devi (the wife of Ray Karan Bagel of
Gujarat). It is said that Ala-ud-Din also married with the daughter of Ram
18
Chandra Dev16. Allauddin’s son Khizr Khan was deeply involved and married
to Dewai Rani. Amir Khusrau’s famous poem “ Dewal Rani Khizr Khan”, was
published after the murder of the prince. It narrates the love and tragic end of
the devoted couple. Mubark Shah was interested in marriage to the beloved
wife of Khizr Khan. But he failed in his desire.
Sultan Muhammad Tughluq wished that his brother Rajab may enter into
the matrimonial alliance with the family of Rai’s of Dipalpur. But the family
was reluctant about this relationship .At this moment the daughter of Rai’s of
Dipalpur said to his father, thinks that one of your daughters has been seized by
Mongols”. Same was the case with her son Firoz shah17.
Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq who made “ Shaira “ the basis of
administration , took a Hindu woman as his wife. 18.Even Sikandar Lodi was
born of a Hindu lady Bibi Amba . She secured the throne of Delhi for her son
after the death of Sultan Bahlol Lodi19.
The marriage of Sharqi Princess Bibi Raji with Sultan Ibrahim’s son was
entirely a political alliance.20
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti married a Hindu woman named
Ummatullah, (daughter of local Hindu Chief) who had been seized in the war.
So, the woman of that age were used to settle down the disputes between the
kings and to won their favor for their political wishes.
3.3 Purdah.
In early medieval Indian society, purdah was the accepted norm. Islam
advocated complete seclusion of women and considered those women moral
and pure who observed purdah. He even insisted but women should not laugh
loudly in the presence of male members of her family. The example of Raziya
is well known to prove the existence of purdah in royal harem. Amir Khusrau
commented. The good natured daughter Raziya decorated the throne for some
19
months, her sun-like face was canceled in the clouds of veil At last she
discarded the veil, her might and prowess compelled brave men to bow before
her.21According to Amir Khusrau purdah provides integrity and elevates the
morality of women. Corroborating his verdict the poet narrates. If the shell is
devoid of covering, the water drop inside the shell would have remained
unnoticed and unprecious even the mode of transportation was covered with
curtains which symbolized that it was the era of purdah. The prime modes of
transportation especially for upper class women were palanquin, dola and
chariots.22 Ibn-e-Battutah had vividly described the dola of Makhdoma-I-Jahan
( the mother of Sultan, Muhammad bin Tugluq).”It was in the shape of cot,
knitted by silken threads covered by bent sticks with bamboos projecting on
either side. On both sides there were hanging curtains,
Firoz shah was the first monarch who forbade the Muslim women to
visit the mausoleums outside the city of Delhi. According to him, such outdoor
movement is strictly prohibited for Muslim women in Shariat.23
3.4 Bhakti Movement and woman.
During Delhi Sultanate a number of reformers and saints flourished.
Their impact upon the social and religious life of this period was profound.
They paid their attention towards the inferior status of female in the feudalistic
society of Hindustan.Ramanand, the first saint of Bhakti cult accepted women
as disciples. Padmawati, Sadhana and Surasari were the names of some of his
female students of Ramnand.24 you are Brahmin because a Brahmin woman is
respectful if she is a mother. Otherwise a woman is an obstacle to salvation.
Her sexuality should be subjected to usual regulation. 25The woman of strisbhav
became the mistress of senses but stridharma to whom he considers the ideal
woman).26

20
 Females should be protected by some male guard. Kabir laid the task of
preserving the integrity of female and their protection upon the shoulder of
kshatriyas. Adultery is regarded as a sin by him equivalent to murder. He
advocated inter caste marriages. He gave his own daughter Kamali in marriage
to a Brahmin youth.27Guru Nanak (founder of religion, Sikhism ) regarded
women equal to men,” Why people consider women evil? When men born cut
of them” (Among the Sikhs, a man or a woman can perform religious
ceremonies, address prayers, lead in congregations and join in administrating
baptism) Kabir called her a happy wife who gave up to god her body, soul,
wealth and household.28.
Guru Amir Das was also against the custom of purdah. Once Raja of Haripur
along with his wives visited the Guru
The queen observed purdah, Guru objected and asked them to put their veils
off. One of them did not agree to remove purdah the Guru remarked. “If thou
art not pleased with the Guru’s face why hast thou come hither? The effects of
this was that the men, with whom it was usual in hard times to leave their
females to the mercy of invader, (lest they performed Jauhar), now they come
forward as the defenders of their homes.29
Guru Amar Das started Piri system for the regeneration of the society,
which was entrusted with the task of education women in religious and social
norms. The whole organization was handled by intellectual women. Bibi
Bhani, Bibi Dabi and Bibi Pal (these women were devotees of Guru Amar Das
and helped him in education women) were those who contributed in this
system. In the attempt to improve the pitiable condition of women that
prevailed during that time all the Bhakti saints tried to give an equal status to
women along with men. The social evils like purdah, sati, female infanticide,
marriage and other rituals were attacked and women were asked to come out
21
and work for their social and spiritual uplift. Chatianya is the only saint in this
period that does not seem to have done much for social regeneration of women.
In a nutshell it can be said that the medieval saints at their own tried to
regenerate the society in general and womenfolk in particular.
3.5 women and Sufis.
The attitude of the Sufi Saints towards women was kind and liberal.
According to their teachings a woman was not disqualified to be initiated as
Murid (disciple) of a Shaikh.
Shaikh Nasirudin Chirag (1276) brought a method of initiation of females as
disciples in sufi order. The Shaikh would first place his index finger in a bowl
of water and recite some verses. After that pot was taken to the woman who
would immerse her index finger to complete her initiation .30He did not
advocate any discrimination of sex and placed similar restrictions and
obligations on both male and female.Khwaja Zikrullah ,elucidated the
difference of method to be followed by men and women who desired to
undergo “ Chillah. First she was to perform the usual ritual ablution ( wazu).
During the period of forty days she was to lead quite a scheduled life.
Concentrating fully upon prayers during the ensuring period .She had to follow
strict rules in daily routine to make this “chilla successful”
Baba Farid was also in favour of women’s religious education. His own
daughter Bibi Sharifah was very devoted towards religious life. Baba Farid
used to say. “Had it been permitted to give Khalifat Nama of Shaykh and his
Sajjadah to a woman I would have given them to Bibi Sharifah”31.
On Bibi Fatima Sam, another virtuous lady of Baba Farid’s age, Shaikh
Nizam ud Din Auliya Commented. That woman is a man whom the creator has
sent to earth in the bodily form of a woman when a wild lion comes into an
inhabited area from the forest he explains, no one ask is it male or
22
female.Simillarly, the son of Adam: whether they are men or women, must
devote themselves to obedience and piety.”32
Islam prohibits remuneration and celibacy. It sanctions matrimony in
order to curb and channelize human passion for the betterment of the society
and for procreation.33.Shiekh Nizam-ud-Din Auliya did not consider marriage
as an impediment to spiritual pursuits, but he regarded celibacy as more
appropriate for perfection of religious life. Even Nizam-ud-Din Auliya helped
his disciples to lead a life of celibacy.
Shaikh Nizam-ud-Din Chirag Dehlavi resolved to lead an unmarried life
to curb his passion and desires. He used to drink only lemon juice; this made
him very weak and brought him almost on the verge of death. Sufis had
different opinion about marital life. Shaikha Muin-ud-din Chisti preferred
polygamy. His two wives were Ommatullah daughter of Hindu chief and
Asuatullah the daughter of Sayyid Wajih-ud-din Meshedi34Amir Hassan, the
author of Fawid –ul-Fuad a disciple of Shaikh Nizam-ud-Din Auliya remained
unmarried like his mentor and spent all his energies in spiritual pursuits.35.
3.6 Jauhar.
During Sultanate period a great number of references can be cited when
ladies performed Jauhar. During the seized of Chittor in the year 1303 A.D.
The Sultan Ala-ud-Din spared no effort to win Padmini , the wife of Rana
Ratan Singh of Chittor. But she opted to perform Jauhar along with other
females.36.
Another instance worth quoting pertains to Ranthambhor. The political
turmoil at Ranthambhor led the Chief Queen of Raja Hammir, Ranga Devi to
embrace the flames along with other women in her fort.
In the reign of Sultan Mohammad bin Tughluq. Rai of Kampilla created
problems. They fought for their safety but could not avert the crisis. Therefore
23
a pyre was set up by Rai and he instructed his daughters and wives to perform
Jauhar37.Adultery was another vice which was prevalent. Apart from
commoners, women of royal household were also found guilty of adultery. The
daughter of Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khalji was stoned to death when the charge of
adultery was confirmed by Qazi Kaml-ud-Din. 4 Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khalji tried
to improve the moral values of the people and fell heavily upon the ones who
indulged in adultery. He attempted to check this vice by giving harsh
punishment by depriving the culprits of their generative organs. 38When the
charge of adultery was established between a non-Muslim and a Muslim
woman, the former ceased to enjoy state protection .Barani, while imparting his
verdict upon adultery remarked that capital punishment should be inflicted
upon the guilty ones. The activities of Mujtahidan and lbahatiyan during the
reign of Sultan Firoz Shah Tughuq illustrated the extent to which the moral
standard of the society (no doubt of particular sect) had fallen.
3.7 Women and professions.
The activities of women normally confined to the four walls of the
house, Ismail (1350)Who says that women, being “ of a defective intellect”, are
suited only to working with this instrument 1
The earliest illustration of
spinning wheel .The middle class of Indian women took active part in
horticultural activities. Even they went to Hauz, rivers and wells to fetch water.
Cooking and serving of the food even in public places was considered another
duty of females.39
3.8 Slavery.
Female slavery was quite common during Sultanate. There was
restriction (from the side of state) imposed on the sale and purchase of female
slaves, like ordinary commodities. War was another reason: the captive women
were generally distributed among the nobles and officers. Balban’s Army
24
 captured two to three thousand men & women from his famous Luknauti
expedition. According to Barani.” That was enough for the next generation of
Balban “.Amir Husain Sajjzi, contemporary poet of Amir Khusrau also bought
a slave girl, costing five Tanaks for the purpose of serving. Amir Khusrau
mentioned two types of female slaves. One totally confined for pleasures and
enjoyment and other virtually serving as maid servants doing rough domestic
work like the drawing of water and grinding the corn. Bibi (the wedded wife)
treated them harshly and kept them half starved under her watchful eye.40
For the purpose of serving Indian slaves girls were considered best, and for
pleasure and enjoyment Turkish and Chines girls were popular during
sultanate. Khusrau mentioned Indian slave girls having dark complexion, soft
and cool by nature, ready to perform difficult tasks. These female slaves
proved to be a boon to the royal court. When they acted as state informers or
spies, their duty was to inform Sultan about the day to day activity in his
Kingdom. They were often rewarded by the Sultan with precious gifts which
comprised gold and jewels.
Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khalji while enacting his market control policy set
the following prices for female slaves: the price of ordinary working female
slave ranged from 5-12 Tanakas. Whereas the one having charming personality
could be bought for 20 to 30 Tanakas, the peerless beauty having the price of
200 Tanaka.
These female slaves were not displayed or bargained, and furthermore
the presence of the broker was prohibited by the Sultan.41.

3.9 Reference.
1. Rekha Mishra .women’s in Mughal india.1967.Allahabad.P5.

25
2. Muhammad Aziz Ahmad. Political History &institutions of early Turkish
Empire Delhi1206-1290 A,D,p.189
3. Minhaj us siraj Tabqat I Nisiri (tr) H.G Raverty, vol.1.Delhi1970, p.632.
4. Ibid, p.634.
5. Ibid,p.635
6. R.P Tripathi, Some Aspects of Muslim Administration. Allahabad:
7. Tabaqat –i-nasiri(Rav)opcit,p.635
8. Ibidp.635
9. A.B.M Habib Ullah, Foundation of Muslim Ruler in India.
Allahabad;1961,p.116
10.Muhammad Aziz Ahmad. Political History &institutions of early Turkish
Empire
11.A.B.M Habib Ullah, Foundation of Muslim Ruler in India1976.p.119
12.R.P Tripathi, Some Aspects of Muslim Administration. Allahabad: Indian
Press. 1936. P.109.
13.K.S Lai, History of the Khalijis . Karachi: Union Book Stall, 1950.p.35
14.Khalid Ahmad Nizami . Royalty medieval india.delhi;1997,p.87
15.Ibid87-88
16.Agha Mehdi Husain. Tughluq dynasty . Calcutta. 1963.p.19
17.Ibid opcitp.408.
18.Abdul Halim. History of Lodi sultan of Delhi and Agra 1924, p, 135.
19.Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad, , Roaylity in medieval indiaopcit,p.87
20.A.A Razvi.sufism in India 2004.p,124
21.Dr waheed Mirza .the life and work of amir khusrau 1975, p.24.
22.K.M Ashraf.opcit, p.173.
23.Ibid, opcit.p175.
24.Tara Chand. State and Society in the Mughal Period. Lahore 1979.p.145.
26
25.Kum kum sangari Mirabai and spiritual economy of bhakti.p, 77.
26.Ibid, p.79.
27.V.Bhattacharya. The spirit of Indian culture. Delhi: 1918, p.181-182.
28.Ibid, p.183.
29.Teja singh. Essays on Sikhism.p.30
30.K.A Nizami, Aligarh.p160.
31.K.A Nizami, The life and Times of sheikh Farid ud din Ganjishakar,
Delhi:1975,p.71
32.A.A Razvi.sufism in India 2004.p,401
33.Shaikh M.kidwai. women under different social and religious
lawDelhi1976,p.97
34.K.A Nazimi .Religious and politicsopcit, p.203.
35.A.A Razvi.sufism in India vol, 1, p.173.
36. K.S Lal, History of the Khalijis Bombay.1963, p.112.
37.K.M. Ashraf. Life and condition of the people of Hindustan. Delhi: 1970,
p.193.
38.Ibid
39.Ibid opcit, p.179.
40.Askari, Amir Kusrau as a Historian. Vol.II. 1967, p.142.
41.K.S.Lal, History of khalijis Allahabad, p.286.

CHAPTER – FOUR

27
 CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION OF SULTANATE LADIES
4.1 Harem.
The Sultans (including Hindu Rajas) were extremely sensual. Harem
comprised of royal ladies, mother, wives, daughters, concubines, female slaves
and eunuchs. Mother and Chief Queen of Sultan exercised great authority in
royal harem, although Sultan was the head of harem and it was the duty of
intimates to obey the command of Sultan.1
The institution of harem was well organized. During Sultanate female
daroghas were employed with the object of maintaining internal security under
the supervision of Sara-Parahdar. These people maintained lesson between
inner and outer world. When Sultan proceeded on some campaign, he assigned
the harem to the care of some most reliable novel. When Ala ud Din Khaligi
went out t meet a Mongo invasion, he entrusted his harem and treasures to the
care of Ala ul Mulk, the Kotwal ( superintendent ) of Delhi and ordered him, “
to hand over the key of the Harem and treasures to whoever is victorious” 2.
Some ladies of royalty used to have full control over the harem and this often
lead to the domination of that section in the court Politics. The activities of
Malik Niam-ud-Din’s wife, during the reign of Sultan Kaiquabad were an
outstanding example of this nature.
The ambitious noble Malik Nizam-ud-Din entered slowly in the royal
household with the effort of his wife (who was the daughter of Fakhr-ud-Din,
the Kotwal of Delhi). She earned the title of being the respectable queen
mother of ( Kaiquabad) of the Sultan . The domination of Mali’s wife enabled
him to continue his corruption without the fear of Sultan.
The Sultan gave a liberal patronage to concubines, but they did not enjoy
the status of equality of a married wife. The children of concubines were

28
deprived of various privileges and opportunities. It can be illustrated by the
case of Kai.
Khusrau, the elite over looked the claim of Kai Khushrau to the throne in
spite of Sultan’s Balban’s will. The nobles considered it improper to extend
support to the son of a concubine ( Kai Khushrau) whose mother was the
concubine of Prince Muhammad son of Sultan Balban), and elevate the off-
spring of such union to the throne of Delhi. This indicates that though the
concubines were accepted and patronized, yet their issues could not claim
certain legal rights.3
Harem had a positive and negative impact upon Sultan Ala-ud-Din
Khalji adopted a novel method of punishment to his enemies. He punished the
women of enemy’s harem Instead of males. Nusrat Khan tortured women
mercilessly. Sultan Ghiyas –up- Din Tughlug ordered to throw the wives of
rebels to be crushed under the feet of an elephant.
As far as the size of Harem was concerned no Sultan or Emperor could
have a harem as large as Sultan Ghiyas ud Din of Malwa. 4 He was very
particular about the comforts of the inmates of his harem. A separate market
was established within the harm in which all necessary items of the females
were sold. The Sultan also took interest in educating the women of his harem.
Rani Khurshid, his chief wife enjoyed a place of honour not only in the harem
but also dominated in the court politics.5
A regular army was stationed around the harem to defend it from any
danger. In time of internal and external emergency provisions were first made
for the security of the harem and its intimates.6

4.2 Education.

29
 In the presence of child marriage and purdah, the education of women
did not receive much encouragement. But, on the whole, society was not in-
different towards their education. Women who belonged to royalty were given
private tuition during the Turco Afghan rule. The daughter of lltutmish m
Raziya Sultan who succeeded him on the throne had received a sound
education and was taught even riding and art of war.7
Pior to Raziya Mah Malik popularly known as Jalalud Duniyauddin, the
granddaughter of Alauddin Jahansuz created a place for herself in literary field.
She earned fame especially because of her excellent handwriting. Bibi Razi ,
the wife of Sultan Mahmud Sharqi of Jaunpur contributed much in the literary
field .She extended patronage to learned men and open a number of Madras’s.
These institutions even provided stipend for student and teachers for their
encouragement. The Shqrqi Sultanate of Jaunpur becomes an important center
of education.
Sometimes Muslim widows used to teach the Quran to the young
Muslim girls. Elite class of Muslims sent their girls even to Maktab. A Maktan
ceremony was performed both for boys and girls when they joined these
institutions. Gifts from students and their parents were accepted by the teachers
before starting a new lesson and specially when the Holy Quran was read
once.8 It was celebration day holiday for half a day was granted in the whole
Muktab when any student completed the first reading of the Holy Quran. 5
Various subjects were taught to the girls which included
dancing,Sewing,Viewing, crafting and the use of musical instruments. 9Sultan
Ghias – ud –Din of Malwa had fifteen thousand women in his harem. They
were the women of intellect. Singers, dancers and the teachers of various arts,
it means female education was quite known in Malwa. Sultan Ghias-ud-Din
(1463-1500 A.D.) of Malwa was particular about educating the women of his
30
harem. Tutors were engaged to educate the royal princes. During his reign
about 70 women were well versed in the Holy Quran who recited the whole of
it at a stretch, while the Sultan wore his garments. Ghias – ud-Din Khilji also
founded a Madrash at Sarangpur for teaching art and crafts to women. 1 Sultan
Muhammad Shah Tughluq established one thousand Madras as in Delhi and
according to lbn-Batutah three madrasas were only for females. 10Except the
reference of Ibn Battutah of separate institution ( in the Southern Coastal
Hinwar ) for girls , there does not seem to be any such arrangement during the
Sultanate period.11Some women even excelled in the art of Astrology.4 During
Sultanate, women were professionally trained especially for music and dance.
Two famous singers of Jalal-ud-Din Khiliji’s reign were Fatuha and Nusrat
Khatun. They had a melodious voice and were well trained in this art. Dukhtar
Khasa, Nusrat Bibi and Mehr Afroz were expert in dancing.
The education of women did not receive much encouragement due to the
feudalistic values of Sultanate but on the whole the society was not indifferent
towards female education.
4.3 Marriage ( Institution ).
Marriage was considered the prime duty of parents. State was taking
responsibility of marriage, especially the marriage of poor girls. There were
many norms. Traditions and forms of marriage Dowry, polygamy, violence,
widowhood, sati, etc, were the causes of women’s miseries. All aspects will be
discussed in a section of this chapter.
During the reign of Sultan Balban, Fakhr-ud-Din Kotwal made
arrangements to provide dowry for the poor girls. Sultan Firoz Shah established
a department known as “Diwan-i-Khairat” under the supervision of Sayyid
Amir Miran, to provide relief to the financially handicapped parents. People
presented their applications. This department investigated the pleas of the
31
applicants aid, grants were bestowed upon them which was 50.30.20 Thanks
respectively.When sultan Sikandar Lodhi changed his clothes and beddings,
these things were sold in the market and the money obtained was given for the
dowry of orphan girls.12
Polygamy was an accepted norm of medieval Indian history patronized
by the Sultan as well as nobles. The establishment of harem, collection of
peerless beauties indicated that sultan, nobles and upper class of Indian society
were inclined towards polygamy.
Indian society was inclined towards early marriage. Due to child
marriage early widowhood was quite popular. A widow has to lead a tough life
in every religion of the world. A woman had two choices at that time. First to
burn herself in the final pyre of her husband or spend a secluded life perhaps
with many restrictions. Ibn - Battutah witnessed the performance of sati at
Ajmer. Before the performance of Sati a widow had to decorate herself with
jewels and ornaments. With differed aids of beautification, they adorned
themselves like a newlywed bride. Riding on a horse, accompanied with the
Brahmins, she was brought to the pavilion .A pyre was organized; sesame oil
was added to pyre which increased the intensity of flames. The widow gave her
jewels to the religious people finally she said good bye to the relatives and the
world. Then she threw herself into the fire.13
As a widow she had to lead a hard life Wearing white dress. It appears
that widows ate vegetables and slept on hard beds without any cushions. There
was strict prohibition of the use of garlic, onion and meat.
4.4 Dress.
The dresses of the women were governed by the social status and
individual taste. The dress of the Muslim woman comprised of Kurta along
with Lungi (Shalwar) and had a vell. The women of Doab were seen wearing
32
 Lahanga, Angiya and Chola. For married women and grown up females,
Angiya or brassiere was essential. The women of Gujarat always wore
brassieres.14 Dark colored brassieres were highly popular amongst Indian
women. The dancing girls often wore indigo blue brassieres. They normally
used bright colors and transparent stuff for clothes.
4.5 Ornaments.
According to Amir Khusrau purdah and chastity were the best ornament
s for women.6 Ornaments had special significance for married women. The
widows were not allowed to wear ornaments. 15 before the performance of Sati;
women gave all their ornaments in charity.
Ornaments were quite popular and considered a major weakness of
Indian women. Each part of their limb was decked with one piece or other, a
few popular ornaments were bracelets, earning rings and necklace.
Generally the ornaments were made of gold and silver studded with
jewels, Pearls, diamonds and other precious stones. Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq
forbade the use of gold and silver. This royal decree adversely affected the
popularity of ornaments, but on the other hand Abundance of it recorded by the
historians.16

4.6 Reference.
1. K.M. Ashraf. Life and condition of the people of Hindustan. Delhi,1970,P.56
2. Khaliq Ahmad.Royality in medieval India .opcit, p.88.
3. K.M. Ashraf. Life and condition of the people of Hindustan. p.225.
4. K.S lal .the mughal Harem, pp.25.

33
5. Loksh Chandra Nand. Women in Delhi sultanate.Allahabad.1989,p.228
6. K.S Lal, History of the Khalijis . , optic, p.105.
7. S.M Jaffa, Education in Muslima India,p.291
8. Ibid
9. N.N Law. Promotion of learning in India, p.200.
10.Ibid
11.L.C. Nand. Women in Delhi sultanate.opcit, p199.
12.Sunita zaidi. Women or Muslim women in medieval in Hajira kumar (Ed)
status of women in India opcit, p.54.
13.K.M. Ashraf. Life and condition of the people of Hindustan.opcit, p.190.
14.K.S Lal,History of the Khalijis 1963,p.112
15.K.M. Ashraf. Life and condition of the people of Hindustan.opcit, p.217.
16.K.S Lal.Twilight of sultanate, Bombay1963, p.272.

CHAPTER - FIVE
MUGHAL PERIOD
5 .1 Women and Politics during Mughal Rule 1 (1526-1605 A.D.)

34
 It is very difficult to determine the political right of Indian women in
Mughal period due to the scarcity of positive information. It was the Timuridis
traditions that women used to accompany their males to the war fields.
In India, the Turks, had fully assimilated political tradition of Persians
and accepted the rights of female to sovereignty. The example of Raziya,
female sovereign, was indeed a progressive step taken by Turks in 13 th century.
Raziya encouraged the ladies of royalty to take active part in politics. The
involvement of women in politics, continued throughout the Turkish rule in
India and even Afghans seemed to have allowed their ladies to have some say
in political matters.
The family of Babur which inherited the traditions of Chingaz Khan and
Timur allowed their females sufficient political involvement but they do not
seem to have conceded to them the right of sovereignty1.
In 1494 A.D. when Umer Shaikh MIrza died, Babur was hardly eleven
years old and was confronted with powerful enemies in Farghana. He was
assisted by his grandmother, Ehsan Daulat Begum at this critical stage whose
prudent advice was responsible for much of his success. She acted as real head
of affairs, looked after the immediate administrative problems and situation
fancifully Babar did not suffer much due to her sagacity.2
Babur write about her grandmother, “ few amongst women will have
been my grand – mother equal for judgment and counsel .She was very wise
and far sighted and most affairs of mine were carried through under her advice.
The role of Ehsan Daulat Begum in contemporary politics was not
exceptional in Mughal family. Babar’s mother, Qutluq NIgar Khanum always
accompanied him in his wanderings and war.3 Babur writes about his mother”
she was with me on most of my guerilla expeditions and throne less time. Few
of her sex excelled her in sense and sagacity” Not only that, five or six month
35
later when Hasan ,one of his officers, organized a conspiracy to dethrone
Banur, it was Ehsan Daulat Begum who accepted the challenge, and organized
the royal officers to manage the situation by arresting the conspirators.3
Among Babur’s wives Mahim Begum was politically more active. She
married Babur in 1506 A.D. She accompanied him to Badakhshan and
Transoxiana and stood by him through thick and thin. Mahim Begum was the
only queen before Noor Jahan who was allowed to sit by the side of the king on
the throne at Delhi .
She continued taking an active part in the contemporary politics for two
and half years after the death of her husband. Another wife of Babur who
helped him in solving some of his political problems was Bibi Mubaika whom
he married in Afghanistan in 1519 A.D.Bibi Mubarika, the daughter of Malik
Suleiman Shah belonged to the Yusufzi tribe of Afghans, who were the most
troublesome of all the tribes. She helped Babur to minimize the tension
between Yusufzais (Malik Shah Mansur) and Babur. She strengthened Babur’s
hold in Afghanistan,Khanazada Begum was considered the first lady who
occupied an important position in the Harem of Humayun. She was the eldest
sister of Babur (Babur left her with his furious rival Uzbek chief Shaibani
Khan to save his life).
After the death of Mahim Begum (1532-1533 A.D.) , she was raised to
the status of principal lady of Humanya’s harem and was given the title of
Padshah Begum.
Humayun got news that Hindal occupied Qandhar in 1541 A.D. when he
was moving towards Thatta. On the other hand Kamran , who had sometime
been giving himself an independent sovereign, had concluded his successful
campaign against Hindal, who had seized Qaudhar from him. Qaracha Khan
the governor of Qandhar had carried his brother to Kabul as a prisoner. Then
36
Humayun requested his aunt Khanzada Begum to go to Qandhar to intervene in
this matter and try to bring reconciliation between two brothers but Khanzada
Bugum had been unsuccessful in her mission.4
In 1545, when Humayun returned from Iran and laid a siege to the Fort
of Qandhar, then Khamran found himself in difficulty. He sent Khanzada
Begum to Askari (who was in charge of the fort) with secret instructions to
hold out the fort till the arrival of Kamran. But Askari could not resist the
forces of Humayan. In this critical condition Askari sent Khanzada Begum to
negotiate for peace with Humayaun . But Humayun did not oblige her. This
matter had not been finally settled when she fell seriously ill and breathed her
last in September 1545 A.D.5
In 1551 A.D. when Humayun tried to snatch his lost Kingdom and
intended to visit India, she came to Kabul with the ostensible purpose of
condoling the death of Mirza Hindal, but in reality she was away from her
home on account of some domestic cord.
Her husband and son tried to reconcile her and persuaded her to return,
but during her stay at Kabul she observed the politics of Kabul very keenly.
She persuaded Mirza Sulaiman to take up the conquest of Kabul which was not
an easy task at that time. Even on the death of Humayun, Mirza Sulaiman again
encouraged by his wife. Harem Begum tried to occupy Kabul but he could not
succeed.
In Akbar reign (1566 A.D.) she (Harem Begum) encouraged her
husband Mirza Sulaiman to occupy Kabul for the fourth time. Mirza Hakim
( Akbar’s step brother) had entrusted the Fort of Kabul to Masum and had
retired to Ghorband. In the meantime she herself approached the young prince
and tried to cajole him to meet her at Qarabagh at a distance of twenty four
miles from Kabul. She had a secret plan to arrest the prince at Qarabagh.
37
Unfortunately one of her attendants Joined Mirza Hakim, who had already
started for Qarabagh, he therefore returned for his safety. Harem Begum was
politically a very manure woman. As long as she lived Badkshan was safe in
her husband’s hands. She also interfered in the administration of Kabul but
could not get much success. When she died, her son lost his kingdom.
Haram Begum was a lady of virile and upright character and
commanded awe. She utilized every method into get in the contemporary
politics. Even she offered great help at the time of crisis for Humayun. She was
respected not only by the nobility but also of the princes of royal family.6
Another a lady who tried to deprive of Sher Shah ( Faid) from the
legitimate right of his succession was the step mother of Sher Shah. According
to Abbas Khan, she persuaded Farid’s Father Miyan Hussain to give the
pargana and property during his life to her son otherwise she will kill herself
and her son in the presence of Miyan Hussain. She could not get the share
irrespective of her love and affection for Sher Shah’s father. She pushed their
claims for the throne of Mewar. She had secret communication with Babur and
sought his help in establishing the claims of her sons but she could not get
encouraging response from Babur.
Her son Vikramaditya succeeded to the throne of Mewar in 1531 A.D.
But he proved himself incompetent and neglected the administration. He lost
due to the conspiracies of Rajput nobility. This situation was controlled by his
mother Rani Karmavati. But the political situation became worse when
Bahadur Shah of Gujrat threatened with an invasion of Mewar. Then
Karmavati sent a bracelet ( Rakhi) to Humayun and appealed for help but she
could not get any sustainable help from Humayun. At last she offered Mawal to
Bahdur Shah.7

38
 In 1535 A.D. Bahdur Shah made another attempt to capture Chittor due
to the weakness of Vikrama Jit. Karmavati made the last attempt to protect the
fort, assembled the Rajput nobles and offered resistance to the forces of
Bahadur Shah. She could not succeed. Rani Karmavati performed Jahur and
the fort was captured by Bahdur Shah on 8th March 1535 A.D.8
In the early days of Akbar some ladies were politically very active due to
political upheavals .One of them was Mah Chuchak Begum ( a step mother of
Akbar). She was married to Humayun in 1546 A.D Her son Mirza Mohammad
Hakim was appointed the Governor o Kabul by Kumayun in 1556 A.D. Mirza
Hakim was placed under the guardianship of Mumin Khan who assisted him in
the administration of Kabul. Mah Chuchak Begum had great political
influence in the political matters. In 1560 A.D. after the fall of Bhiram
Khan ,Munim Khan was called by the center and his son Ghani Khan was left
behind. Then Mah Chuchak Begum fully exploited the political situation and
firmly gripped the administration o Kabul. She manages to throw out Ghazi
Khan , and compelled him to leave India.9
Now Kabul was under the direct control of Mah Chuchak Begum who
appointed Fazil Beg to look after the administration but his rival conspired
against him and finally murdered him . Then she appointed Shah Wali Atka as
the manager of Kabul but he started wielding too much power and created
suspicion in the mind of Begum. Finally she managed to put him to death.
When the news of Kabul crisis reached the court of Emperor Akbar, he
decided to send Munim Khan again to Kabul to establish peace and order in the
province. But the resistance offered by Afghans could not be broken and
Munim Khan was ultimately defeated.
When Shah Abdul Mali, a turbulent noble from the family of great sayid
of Trimizi, who escaped from the prison at Lahore, arrived Kabul in search of
39
protection and, approached Mah Chuchak Begum. The Begam consulted her
confidential advisers and welcomed Abdul Maali and treated him with great
generosity. Even Begum married her daughter Fakhrrusnisa Begum to Abdul
Mali with a view to strengthen the position of her family. But Abdul Maali
conspired against her and finally put her to death in 1564 A.D.
5.2 Women and politics –II (1605-1707)
During the year of Jahangir’s reins his stepmother; Salima Sultan Begum
was very active in contemporary politics .in 1605A.D. Khusrau the eldest son
of Jahangir revolted against his father. At the instigation of Mirza Aziz Koka
Known as Khan – lazam .son of Shams ud Din Atka Khan.it is said that Khan-
I-Azam used to go to the court .dressed in his shroud because he apprehended
that he could be killed any day. Khan-I-Azam had no control over his tongue.
Jahangir conducted a private meeting in which he discussed the stubborn
behavior of Khan-I-Azam. Amir–ul- umra and Mahabat khan suggested
Jahangir that khan –l-Azam should be put to death immediately .But Khan-I-
Azam Lodi opposed the idea3in the meantime. Salima Sultan Begum called
Jahangir behind the Purdah.” your majesty all the Begins are assembled in
zanan for the purpose of interceding for Mirza Aziz Koka .it will be better if
you come there .otherwise they will come to you Jahangir was constrained to
go to the female apartment .Harem used its pressure and finally Jahangir
pardoned Mirza Aziz Koka.10 Khusrau revolted against Jahangir in 1613
A.D. His step mothers and sisters requested the emperor repeatedly that .as the
prince was repenting for his past behavior. He should be pardoned and
permitted audience at the intercession of ladies of Harem .Jahangir ultimately
gave audience to Khasrau and permitted him to pay respect to the emperor
everyday11. One of the striking personalities of Jahangir , s period was
Mehrunissa (nur Jahan) daughter of ltmad –ud –Daula .she was married to
40
Jahangir in 1611.Nur Jahan was an intelligent lady and was endowed with the
capacity of understanding the political problems and took keen interest in the
matters of administration
She served as a sound advisor of her husband .the emperor had great
confidence in her. Naturally she exercised a great influence over her husband.
Jahangir gave Mehrunisa .the title of Noor mahal (light of the palace) in
1611 A.D. in Jan 1613 she was given the rank of Padshah Begum after the
death of salima Sultan Begum. In March 1616 the title of Noor Jahan (Light of
the palace) upon her .it is said that she was a very ambitious lady and wanted to
have power in her own hands. Consequently, she formed junta (clique) of her
close relatives. including her father limed –ud-Daula, brother .Asif khan .To
strengthen this group in 1612 A.D. prince Khuram the second son of Jahangir
was also included through his marriage with Arjmand Bano Begum (daughter
of Asif Khan ).this group of extremely capable persons practically ruled the
empire for the next ten years.13 The sway of Nur Jahan was really dominating in
this group. The period of Nur Jahan, s ascendancy is divided into two
phase’s .in the first period from 1611 to 1622.Jahangir was the factor to be
reckoned with .the member of Nur Jahan ,s so called junta almed at pleasing the
emperor and getting their wishes through .ltimad-ud-Daula and his wife were
alive. This roused the jealousy of other nobles who resented the control of
politics by this group. in 1617 shahzada khurram had gained the title of shah
Jahan .gradually coming into prominence in the political affairs of the
Empire .it created a gulf between shah Jahan and Nur Jahan which ultimately
alienated the prince from this group.14 perhaps their interests clashed which
impelled Nur Jahan to plan to send Khurram off to a distant place like
Qandahar. Not only was this he deprived of his Jagir as well.

41
5.3 Matrimonial Alliances. (woman a moveable commodity)
Mughal rulers tried to build up and strengthen their empire in many
ways. One method was to seek alliance and collaborations with powerful states
through matrimonial relationship .in Kabul .the early Timuir rulers Mirza
Ulugh Beg had used this policy successfully to strengthen his week position
by a matrimonial alliance with Yusafzai and Dilazak Afghan tribes Babur
followed in the foot –steps of Ulugh Beg and contracted a marriage with
Yusafzai .Afghan lady Bibi Mubarikah1.Bibi Mubarikah presence in Babur’s
house hold be responsible for sher shah Suri ,s considerate treatment of Mughal
ladies .He also allowed her to carry Babur,s mortal remains to Kabul for final
burial . Humayun was unable to develop this policy effectively love .perhaps
proved of some help in securing for him the Tranian military help15.
She Shah as a diplomat Contracted the matrimonial alliances wherever
needed. He shah secured the kingdom of south Bihar through his Matrimonial
relationship. He used this marriage as a step to capture whole waliyat of
Bihar .His queen named Dudu helped him to establish his sovereignty and
authority of the wliayat of Bihar.16
Meanwhile Sher Shah sur married Lad Malik. (Taj
khan Sarang khan,s widow ) who fetched him the fort of Chunar .The
acquisition of the fort of Chunar was a landmark in Sher Shah ,s career in
South Bihar .This fort commanded a strategic positon on the river Ganga . It
was considered by Sher Shah Suri as a gate to Bihar and Bengal.sher Shah Sur ,
s financial resources were also managed through these marriages .the amount
of wealth which he came by .besides the fort of Chunar and its Pargan as
amounted to one hundred and fifty jewels of superb quality seven maund of
pearls and fifty maunds gold. His next marriage took place with khan
Gassian Nasir Khan,s widow. She brought seven mound of gold .ten elephants
42
and eighty horses in addition to a large amount of precious articles. 17 The
preface of Tarikh –i-Sher Shah portrays the character of Shah in a negative
manner although Sher Shah enjoyed highest appreciation as good administrator
from every historian . Sher Shah was an able administrator no doubt true-
He was a cautious rather than an enterprising commander and was more prone
to seek success by crafty and crooked courses by the exercise of valour and
daring. His soldier like death in the trenches has cast a ray of material glory
upon his memory .but the treacherous betrayal of Bibi Fath Malika of Bengal
and bloody murder of the prisoners of Raisin would bedim a much brighter
fame than he achieved. Surang khan .the Gukkhar Chief .prevented kamran
going against lslam Shah sur and eventually handed him over to
Humayun .Earlier kamran deprived of Kabul had married the daughter of Shah
Hussain Arghun the ruler of Sindh .Through this alliance. He had recovered
Kabul for a short period. With the accession of Akbar, Allies and collaborators
were re –initiated with a new vigor .Akbar had succeeded to the throne in a
very difficult situation He was direly in need of support. The young Bad
shah .Akbar no doubt .guided by Bairam khan realized the Mewati (Muslim
Rajput) were the main powerful group in the neighborhood of Delhi. And a
brief sum of affairs that transpired during these days (while emperor decorated
Delhi by his just presence )for consoling the zamindars and friends of the state
he was arranging marriage with their children out of them was Jamal khan .a
paternal cousin of Hussain khan .Mewati (one of the respectable and
trustworthy Zamindars of Hindustan ) was honoured by the dignity of kissing
the earth .He had two beautiful daughters .the benevolent emperor bestowed
her younger sister to Bairam khan.
Abul Fazi gave this credit to Akbar but Bairam khan was active in
arranging this marriage .who was the force behind the mughal throne .But no
43
better alliance could be made by Akbar at that time. Akbar was the first
ruler who initiated royal marriage with non Muslim Rajput families. This
question is yet to be answered who was really behind this bond Akbar –Rajput
According to Abdul Fazal his majesty showered this honour upon Rajput
families. On the other hand Raj puts were known for their traditional warrior
attitude and resistance .Diplomacy prevailed on both sides Akbar won their
favor through matrimonial alliance and they were important “Munsabs “during
the reign of Akbar .18
5.4 Akbar’s political Marriages
1 D/o Jamal khan Mewati 1556 A.D
2 D/o Mirza Abd Allah Mughal 1557 A.D
3 D/o Miran Mubarak Shah 1565 A.D
4 D/o Hassan khan of Kashmir 1569 A.D
5 D/o Qazi cousin of Naqeeb Khan 1594 A.D
5.5 Marriage with Rajput princes
1. Jodha Bai D/o lBharimal of Amber 1562 A.D
2. D/O Rai of Bikaner 1570 A.D
3. D/O Rai of Jaisalmer 1570 A.D
4. D/O Raja Jaichand of Nagarko 1572 A.D
5 D/O Askaran (Dungarpur) 1577 A.D
6. D/O kesho Das Rathor of Mairia 1581 A.D
Jahangir like father followed the tradition of political marriages. His political
marriages were .
1. Man Bai D/O Raja Bhawan Das 1585 A.D
2. D/O Rai Singh Bhatta
3.jagat Gasain D/O Raja Udai Singh (motaRaja )1586A.D
4.D/O Raja Rai singh of Bikanar
44
5. Karamsi. D/O Keshar Das Rathor
6. Malika Jahan D/O Rawal Bhim of jaisalmer
7.D/O Ruler of Khandesh
8. D/O mirza sanjar
9. D/O Ram Chandra Bundela. 1609 A.D4
10. D/O Darya Mal Bhas
During the reign of AkbarJahangir Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb marriages
were contracted with the woman of leading families of local chiefs. These
figures show that Akbar consolidated his relation with leading Raj put and
Muslim tribes. These marriages should have benefited the bride ’s fathers and
guardians but the emperor got a lot for instance Akbar’s marriage with the
daughter of Raja Bihari Mal of Amber as Beni Prasad observed. It secured to
four generations of Mughal emperors. The services of some of greatest captains
and diplomats that medieval india produced.18 The marriage of Salim with
man Singh, sister also aimed to provide the future emperor designated with
important allies in the form of Kachwahas .the Gakkhars and kuk altashes on
the other hand good relations with the ruler of Kashmir and Tibet neutralized
Uzbeg threat from this direction.19
Daniyal.s marriage with the daughter of Sultan Adil of Bijipur proved a
check upon the mughal confrontation with Ahmadnagar and a better alliance of
“
Ahmad Nagar Bijapur and Golcunda effectively used. Danyal marriage with
the daughter of Ran mal of jodhpur and daughter of Dilpat of Ujjama .this
policy of conciliation and co operation of Mughals with Rajput had completed.
the effects of these matrimonial alliances were ever lasting I) Mughal empire
got maximum stability ii) interaction with different cultural communities and
the abilities were improved to adopt them iii) especially Akbar .initiative to
bring Rajputs ladies in Mughal power Rajput,s could not take advantage of the
45
 situation. After the consolidation of Mughal Empire, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
minimized the number of these matrimonial Alliances. Shahjahan had three
marriages of political king.
1. Qandhari Mahal D/O Mirza Muhammad Hussain Safvei Married in 1615 A.D.
2. Arjumand Begum D/O Asif Khan niece of Nur Jahan Begum.
3. D/O ShahNawaz Khan

5.6 Reference.

46
1. Muhammad zaki. Muslim society in northern India during the 15th and161th
century; 1996, p.29.
2. Dr R, P Tripathi, Some Aspects of Muslim Administration. Allahabad: 1963,
p.109.
3. William, Rush brook. An Empire builder of the 16th century .London :
1918.p.34
4. Ishwari Prasad. The Life and Times of Humayun. Calcutta: p.222.
5. Ibid opcitp.244.
6. Ibid.p.308.
7. Dr R, P Tripathi, Some Aspects of Muslim Administration. Allahabad: 1963,
p.72.
8. G.N Sharma. Mewar and Mughal emperors Agra:1954,P.57
9. V, A smith Akbar the great Mugal.Delhi1962.p.46-47.
10.Shah Nawaz khan.Missir ul umrah.vol.1 (TR) Beveridge.1979 patna.p.328.
11.Ibid
12.Beni Prasad. History of Jahangir, Allahabad: 1987, p.187.
13.Muhammad shujauddin.The life and time of nor jahan.1967.
14. Beni Prasad. History of Jahangir, Allahabad: 1987, p.338.
15.Hussain Khan. The transition of powers forms early Mughal to Sher Shah Suri,
opcit, p.134.
16.S.K Benerji, Humayun Badshah, p.199.
17.Hussain Khan. The transition of powers forms early Mughal to Sher Shah Suri,
opcit, p144.
18.P.N chopra. Life and letters under the Mughal Delhi: 1975, p.388.
19.Beni parasad. History of Jahangir. Opcit, p.120.

CHAPTER -SIX
47
 IMMUNITY OF MUGHAL LADIES
6.1 Privilege of mughals.
On the whole, Mughal’s attitude towards the ladies of harem was appreciated
by the majority of historians. They are described as good – hearted, gentle and
hospitable towards women. They treated their women with utmost respect.
Especially a mother was considered as a sign of fortune and good-will
according to the cannons of Islam. All Mughals treated their mother, step
mother, foster mother and elderly ladies with respect. In the case of political
constraints these ladies worked as cushions and helped the emperors to resolve
the problems. Emperor Babur, the first Mughal ruler had highly developed
sense of respect for ladies of his harem. He had great affection for his aunts and
other elderly ladies. He personally used to visit them even without caring for
the severity of weather. Once when Babur went to visit Mahim Begum, she
asked him not to stir out during the hot season. To this Babur replied, “Maim,
it is astonishing that you should say such things. The daughters of Abu, said
Mirza (Paternal uncle of Babur) have been deprived of father and brothers. If I
do not cheer them how shall it be done .This was really the affection and
respect that Babur had for his family’s women. Babur had made suitable
arrangement for the residence of the ladies of his harem. He ordered Khwaja
Qasim, an architect to build a palace for the ladies according to their own
liking.
Babur had a great sense of courteously for the women of his harem.
Once when his paternal aunts, Fakhar-i-Jahan arrived with his sister Khanzada
Begum he “went above Sikandarabad to wait o n them” (Babur left capital
Delhi to receive these ladies).

48
6.2 Honourary Titles.
Mughal rulers awarded honorary title to the ladies related to their
harem. Usually they were addressed by these titles. Hamida Bano Begum,
Akbar’s mother, received the title Maryum Makani (occupying the place of
Virgin Mary) Jahangir’s mother known as Maryam Zamani (Mary of her time)
Shahjahan’s mother Jodha Bai bore the title Bilqls Makani (Lady of pure
abode). Mehrunisa was the exception that most well known titles were
conferred upon her. In 1611 A.D. Jahangir gave her the title of Nur Mahal
(light of Palace). In 1616 A.D. The title of Nur Jahan was bestowed upon her.
After the death of Salima Begum (1613 A.D.) The rank of Padishah Begum
was given to Nur Jahan.1
Arjomand Bano Begum, the lady of Taj, enjoyed the title of Mumtaz
Mahal (exalted one of the palace). She also bore the title. Malika I Jahan
( Queen of the world). After her death in 1631 A.D. the title of lady of the
house was transferred to Jahan Ara Begum. She was usually known as Begum
Saheb.
Aurangzeb gave her ( Jahanara) the title of Sahibat-uz-Zamani ( Mistress
of the age) . She also enjoyed the title of Padshah Begum 7
which was later
awarded to Zinat UN Nisa Begum.2
The wives of Aurangzeb ware commonly known by the name of place
they belonged to such as Aurangabadi Maha, Udaipuri Mahal etc. Begum was
the sign of respect usually used for the ladies of Mughal royalty.3
6.3 Officials Departments. (Hold by the Ladies)
The imperial harm appointed their own officials and servants for the
smooth functioning of their departments. Manucci informs us that important
ladies had their own Nazir who looked after their properties. Land and income
of their lands.4
49
 Queen Nur Jahan had her own vakil who looked after her property. Ishaq
Beg Yezdi was the Mir I Saman (officer looking after imperial household) of
Mumtaz Mahal Jahanara Begum also gave this duty to ishq Beg. He also had
the duty of Mansab Dar (Supervisor) in the Sarkar of Jahanara Begum which
yielded seven hundred rupees annually. Ishaq Beg was promoted to the
position of Diwan (head of the revenue and finance) and she had given him the
title of Hakikat Khan. in 1681 A.D. Syed Ashraf was made the Mir Saman of
Begum Saheb ( Jahanara) Similarly Sayed Ashrf was appointed the Mir-I-
Saman of Zirat-un-Nisa Begum ( daughter of Aurangzeb).These officials
along with other male attendants were lodged at short distance from the harem
so that the ladies could contact hem easily.5
6.4 Allowances, Grants, Jagirs.
The ladies of the Mughal harem were given regular allowances and
grants to meet their personal expenditure. They also received gifts from the
emperor for the purchase of perfumes, betel and other articles of their personal
use.6 One half of their allowance was paid in cash from the royal exchequer
and the other half was given to them in the form of lands and jagirs from which
they received land revenue.

50
 6.5 Reference.
1. Prof. shaja ud din. The life and times of Noor Jahan, opcit, p.26.
2. J.N. Sarkar. History of Aurangzeb. Vol. 1, Optic, p.58
3. Ibid, p.63.
4. J.N. Sarkar. History of Aurangzeb. Vol. 1, Opcit, p.63
5. B.P Sakseena. History of Shahjahan of Delhi.Opcit, p.VI, (Introduction)
6. K.S Lal. The Mughal Harem. Opcit, p. 149.

51
 CHAPTER - SEVEN
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
7.0 Cultural contribution.
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were witnessed by a flurry of
cultural activities in India as the land had not seen in over a thousand years.
The clan of the fabulously talented Mughal dynasty catalyzed much of this.
There were also substantial achievements in many fields outside royal
patronage also. Though there were two different religious identities i.e. Hindus
and Muslims, but both these communities influenced each other and there was
great cultural interaction between them. But the royal and elite cultural
effervescence was primarily a royal spectacle. 1
The Mughals came from a lush cultural background (central Asia) and
they valued intellectual, literary and artistic achievements. Theirs liberal
resources helped them to patronize scholars, distribute charity. Construct
edifices building and lay out gardens. Mughal emperors themselves were
multi-talented people. They have major cultural accomplishments to their
credit. They also gave enough liberty to their ladies in spite of Purdah or
seclusion to patronize the cultural activities. So, Mughal ladies utilized their
credit. They also gave enough liberty to their ladies in spite of Purdah or
seclusion to patronize the cultural activities. So Mughal ladies utilized their
time and resourced on the literary pursuits of that age. Royal ladies like Silma
Sultan Begum , Gulbadan Begum, Nur Jahan, Jahanara and Zeb un Nisa had
their own libraries.2
Some ladies devoted themselves to religion and literary activities; others
passed their time in music dancing and fine arts which were considered the best
sources of their entertainment. Many of them went on excursions and pleasure

52
trips. Most of the ladies were interested in dresses, toilet and ornaments. But all
their cultural activities were restricted behind the pardah .
7.1 Paintings.
During Mughal rule in India, there were a number of schools of painting
and known as artistic families. As far as matter of female painter is concerned
there is only one available reference of female painter named Nadira Bano , the
daughter of pupil of Aqa Riza who made copies o Flemish etchings. 3 The royal
ladies were very much interested in paintings but no reference is available
which could show them achieving any learning in this art. These ladies pat-
rosined those painters who were appointed by the Mughal emperor for their
esthetic taste. Nur Jahan shared actively her husband (Jahangir’s) interest in
painting. Fancy portraits professing to be Nur Jahan’s shooting at birds and
animals are seen in some collections, but none of them bears any real evidence
of being authentic representation of the scenes the painters of that age intend to
depict.4
According to Manucci “ I do not being forward any portraits of queens
or princesses, for it is impossible to see them, thanks to their , being always
concealed. If anyone has produced such portraits, these should not be accepted,
being only likeness of concubines and dancing girls, which they have been
drawn according to the artist fancy”. Manucci has given the portraits of ‘ Dakin
women and women of Hindustan. In his account.5
But scholars like K.S. Lal convincingly stated that Nur Jahan herself
painted with some amount of excellence.6 Women were being depicted in the
miniatures produced in Jahanir’s period. It is likely that Nur Jahan could ask
the painters in Jahangir’s studios to pain any image that appealer to her, it was
due. Perhaps to the influence of Nur Jahan, the favorite queen of Jahangir,
those women became more popular as subject matter of painting.7
53
 Nur Jahan exercised influence upon the paintings under Jahangir. She
was no doubt the appreciative beneficiary of many of the single image and
illustrated manuscripts made in the imperial studios. A copy of Hafiz’s Diwan ,
for example. Copied by Khawaja Abdus Samad Shirinqalam during Akar’s
reign, illustrated with miniatures under Jahangir, because of the seal of Nur
Jahan, indicating that it was presented to her on some occasion by her
husband.8
Janangir’s pictorial hoard some time helped by his royal consort because
she was the collector and curator of some of jahangir’s paintings in early years
of jahangir’s reign, he liked the religious paintings like the Image of Madonna
and Christ suggested by his favorite queen .The paintings of female image,
whether of urban matrons, Roman goddesses or feasting courtesans must
certainly have been drawn at Nur Jahan’s instance. Annemarie Schimell points
out ‘there is a small picture of Dara Shikoh dressed for bed. He and his beloved
wife Nadira Begum are deeply gazing into each other’s eyes. Their servants
clothing is shimmering against the dark background and the lamps are casting a
golden background light. Keeping in view he interests of Nadir Bano, Dara
Khukoh presented her an album that proved her a lover of paintings. Rajput
school of painting also bears the feminine images. Religious love epics of
Hindu mythology depicted illustrations and miniatures of Mugahal period. The
love story of Ram and sita, Radha and krishna reflected through Rajput
paintings of Akabar reign.9

54
Paintings under Mughal.

55
7.2 Music.
Music was considered the favorite activity of the ladies of Mughal harem
. They always took keen interest in music. Ratnavali , the wife of pure mahal
(of raisin) sang hindi songs in her sweet and melodious voice. Queen
Mrignayni (man singh’s wife) was expert in music Mira bai was a well known
singer of that period.
The daughter of Nayak Bikhshi (court singer of Akbar) was an expert in
music. Even Main Tan San spent his time in Deccan for training under this
eminent singer of that age.
They could play Daff, Dafzan and Tambourine. “ Kanjri” a group
consisted of male and female experts in dancing and singing. Emperor Akbar
did not like the name of this group and called them by the name of Kanchais.
There are a number of Mughal/miniatures depicting the dancing performance
and singing of women. Paintings of ladies holding various musical instruments
like Drum. Tambourine Duff , sittar depicted the popularity of music in this
period. Abdul Fazal refers to particular class of female singers, the women
while they sing and play upon thirteen pairs of talas at once. They are mostly
from Gujarat and Malwa. Tera-Tal is still very popular in Rajasthan.” Dhadi
women” sang on a particular instrument named Dahada belonged to the
Punjab.11
Banarsi Prasad Saksena writes, “That emperor shahjahan had given
sometimes to Music in hatch routine of his administrative life. He specially
employed concubines for singing and dancing in the night parties. 12
Hira Bai was considered one of the famous musicians of Shahjahn’s
period. Aurangzeb was deeply involved in the love of Hira Bai Zainabadi .
Unfortunately she died in youth and Aurangzeb had faced this emotional set
back. In the early years of Aurangzeb reign Saraus Bai was the popular singer.
56
She was the darling of prince Murad/ ( Aurangzeb’s brother) . She spent a very
hard time with him when Aurangzeb confined Murad in the fort of Gwalior.
Nur Bai, another female singer of Aurangzeb’s period san Umer the
Rubai of Khayyam very melodiously and swwtly.13
7.3 Dance.
The art of dancing was not the activity of upper class women. They were
just the entertainers. It seems to have been confined to a class of professionals
alone. Dance was just performed in the restricted assemblies and parties of
Mughals. Marriages, birthdays and different ceremonies of royalty and nobility
were the occasions of dance performance. Royal family and nobles did not like
that their females trained in this art because they could get the dancers on
nominal prices.14Many paintings depicted the dance performances of
professional ladies. They were performing in a stylish movement called “
Chacha” or sea saw “In the course of the dance they hold hands and circle eight
times. It was originally a Hindu dance but later on it was taken over by the
Mughals.15
There was a specific class of women who, took dance as a profession,
Akbar used to call them “ Kantians” Most of these Kanchains were handsome
and well dressed and sang to perfection, their limes being extremely supple.
They danced with wonderful agility and were always correct as regards to time.
Abul Fazal refers to a particular class of female dancer, the women while
they sing play upon thirteen Pairs of Talas at once. Two (cymbals or sang tied)
on each wrist, two on each shoulders one on the breast and two on the fingers
of each hand. They are mostly from Gujarat and Malwa. Emperor Aurangzeb
prohibited dancing and singing at court, yet he allowed it in his palace for the
diversion of the queens and his daughters.

57
58
 Fi
gu re
:

Dance papty Mughal Emperor

59
FIGURES: Music was considered the favorite activity of the ladies of Mughals

7.4 Architecture.

60
 The first lady who seems to pay higher attention towards construction
was Haji Begum (the wife of Humayun ) she built the tomb of her husband
Humayun with great care. She also built an Arab Sarai for the accommodation
of Arab travelers and merchants. A royal house and garden was built on the
road from Agra to Bayana under the supervision o Haji Begum 16
. Thevenot
writes, “Upon the road from Agra to Bayana there is a royal house built by the
queen mother (step) of Eebar (Akbar) with gardens kept in very good order.
Near the fort of Lahore Begum Shahi mosque was contracted by
Mariyan Zamani (Jahangir’s mother Manmati, daughter of Raja Bihari Mal).
A garden and a well was also built by the order of Maryam Zamani
Begum in the paragna of Jusat on the road, Jahangir write, certainly the bodily
(step well) was A grand building and had been built exceedingly well. I
ascertained from the officials that the sums of Rs.20, 000 had been expended
on this well.Khusrau Bagh in Allahabad was built by one of the daughters of
Jahangir in 1620 A.D.17
The Mughals were fond of gardens and Nur jahan was no exception .But
she is credited with designing and inspiring construction of many buildings.
she built a garden called Shah Dara near Lahore 18.in 1620 A.D.The vakils of
Nur jahan completed large Sarai in jalandhar (district (punjab) .it was totally
financed by Nur jahan popularly known as “seral mahal “,According to Shuja-
ud –din serai Noor mahal is local idom “meant some specious and important
edlifice.19 The tomb of ltmaid ud Daula (her father ) at Agra .jahangir (her
husband ) at Lahore and herself at Lahore were built under her supervision, it
bears in every part of it the imprint of the refined feminism of this remarkable
queen. These buildings conveyed the impression of the rich articles of jewelry
magnified into mughal architecture20, Besides Nur jahan, another lady Aqa

61
Aqayan .who served Emperor Jahangir for 33 years .built agarden a serai and a
tomb in Delhi.
Purhunar Bano Begum elder daughter of Shahjahan buried in a
mausoleum constructed in Delhi under her own supervision. Taj mahal a
building was constructed by emperor Shahjahan for his beloved wife Arjumand
Bano Begum (mumtaz mahal) this mughal building has the influence of
different buildings constructed earlier by the mughal queens. According topiary
brown Taj mahal is influenced by the tomb of Humayun supervised by his wife
Haja Begum.
A building which may be said to mark the transition between the red
sandstone cum marble constructions of Akbar and Jahangir ,and the pure
marble creations of shah jahan, is that gem of a tomb that of l ,timadu,d-Daulah
at Agra which may be said to be a forerunner of the Taj in certain respects,
Built by it ,imadu,d-Daulah ,s daughter ,the empress Nur jahan ,in 1627-
28A.D.21 Nur jahan also designed and supervised a building of his husband
,
s tomb at Shahdara, Lahore. Taj mahal has certain reflects of this buildings
named Jahangir’s tomb. These three buildings were either designed or
supervised by the females.
Jahanara Begum, daughter of shahjahan had a good architectural sense.
She had ordered to build a mosque at Agra at a cost five lakh rupees. Jahanara
built this mosque out of her own allowance.22
She established a Madrasa in this mosque. She also built a monastery. 1
Jahanara also fined to build caravanserai of Begum Saheb . It is between the
fortress and the city Agra.
Bernier compared this Sarai of Begumm Saheb to the palace Roayal in
Paris, stayed here rich Persian, Uzbek and other for foreign merchants in
various chambers. In which they remained with perfect security and the gate of
62
Sarai being closed at night. She also built the famous caravanserai of Banana
( Kerkoa) 4.
In the village of Achhbal she built a country house with garden and
fountains for her personal use.
Jahanara Begum loved gardens. Her three gardens were in Kashmir
named Bagh I jahanara designed by Jawhar Khan ( Khawaja Sara). Bagh I
Noor Afghan (constructed by Nur Jahan ) Bagh I Safa ( Srinagar) 6 Out Side of
the Delhi gate on the northern side of chandni Chowk she laid out a garden
called Begum Ka Bagh7.
After the death of Mumtaz she inherited Bah-I- Jahanara. 23Raushanara
Begum (Jahanar’s sister) like all Mughal princesses built famous Roshanara
garden at Delhi.24
Zinat un Nisa Begum, daughter of Aurangzed built a mosque after her name
Zinat un Masjid better known as Kuwari Masjid or Maiden’s Mosque .1 It is
said that she demanded the amount of her dowry and instead of getting married
built a mosque.
Norris writes about princess Zinatunnisa Begum, “the princess had built
fourteen carvansarais on the roads out of charity to poor travelers and
merchants.
Zebannisa Begum , another Aurangzeb’s daughter was not behind the
other royal ladies in her garden building. As Chau Burji proves she bestowed it
on one of her friends and planned a second garden for herself in Nawan Kot
(near Lahore). Here she was buried: by her special order the minarets of her
mausoleum were built and carved to represent four slender marble palms.
One of Aurangzeb’s wives, Azzun-Nisa Begum ( bibi Akbarabdi) built a
garden in imitation of Kashmir and Lahore ( Shalimar ) garden. It took four
years for completion and cost about two lakh repees.25
63
 Dai Anga ( Zub un Nisa) wet nurse of Emperor Shahjahan also built a
mosque in 1635 A.D. The mosque in known after her name Dai Anga Masjids
presently situated at the station of Punjab North state railway ( Lahore,
Pakistan).
7.5 Oranments.
Anguthi : Fingers were decorated with Anguthi ( ring) on the right
thumb. Arsi ( mirror) was also worn. According to Manucci “they used it to
look it to look at themselves an act of which they are fond of at any or every
moment. Around the waist they wore chuddar, Kantika belt with small bells,
Kati mekhala or Kardhani were decorative belts used to enhance the beauty of
waist 26.
Besar: was a small golden semi circle nose ornament with pearl. The more
fashionable was lunga (clove) shaped ornament for a broad nostril.
Har: was a string of pearls inter connected by golden rose which comes down
to the stomach, Gulbadan Begum worn round the neck. Har, Hansa, and kantha
were woren as necklaces.27
Bali: was a different from of ear ring. Nose pin and nath were used to adorn
the nose.P.N Chopra writes that nose oranaments were unknown in India uptil
early medieval period. It seems quite certain that this fashion was brought in
India by theMuhammaden invaders fro
in the north west.28
7.6 Payel : was commonly used in the feet . Bichchwah, small ring used for the
toe Anwat, another type of the ring decorated the big toe. Smanucci writes.
Around the bottom of their legs are valuable metal rings or strings of costly
pearls”

64
All jewellery was studded with precious and semi precious stones. 4 Poor
women who could not afford gold or silver made their jewelry with seeds,
shells and flower.29
Bernier describes ,” a large quantity is melted remitted and wasted ,in
fabricating women’s bracelets both for hands and feet, chains , ear rings, nose
and finger rings, and still larger quantity is consumed in manufacturing
embroideries , a larches or striped silken stuffs: fringes of gold lace, worn on
turnbans, gold and silver cloths scarf’s, turbans and broachdes. The quantity of
these articles made in India is incredible “ All the troops form the omrah to
man in the ranks will wear gilt ornament : nor will a private soldier refuse them
to his wife and children though the whole family should die of hunger, which
indeed is a common occurrence”.

65
 Figure:Necklace a gold nacklace studded precious

Fig
ure: BALI ORNAMENTS OF MUGHAL PERIOD

7.6 Reference.
1. Abraham Early. The last spring. The Lives and Times of Great Mughals
1997,p.854
2. Rekha Misra. Women in Mughal India. Allahabad,p.85
3. Annemarie schimmel, the emperor of great mughals. Oxford .p.273.
4. Percy Brown. Indian Paintings under the Mughal. Oxford: Cosmo Publication.
1924.p.157
5. Manucci. Vol.IV ,p.362.
6. K.S Lal .The Mughal Harem. Opcit,P.77
7. P.Pratapaditya. Court paintings of India 16th to 19th centuries. New
York.1983,P44
66
8. Asoka kumar Das, splendor of Mughal paintings, Bombay1986, p.83.
9. Emmy wellsz Akbar Religious thoughts in mughal painting,1952,p.35
10.Prof. M.Aslam article journal of Punjab
11.Percy Brown. Indian Paintings under the Mughal. P.31.
12.Banarsi Prasad seksena, History of shah jahan to Delhi, p.337.
13. Prof. M.Aslam.Risala sahebiya.p.153
14.K.S Lal. The Mughal Harem opcit, p.168.
15.Percy Brown. Indian Paintings under the Mughal. PIVII.
16.S.K Banjerji. Humayun badshah volII opcit p.317.
17.Zeenat, Ziad. Magnificent Mughals. New York. Oxford University Press. 2002,
p.200.
18.K.S Lal.The Mughal Harem opcit,p.75.
19.Prof. shajauddin. The life and times of Noor Jahan, opcit, p102.
20.K.S Lal The Mughal Harem opcit, pp.76.
21.Percy Brown. Mughal Architecture.opcit,p.165
22.Haroon khansher wani.cultural trends in medieval India london1968,p.32
23. K.S Lai the Mughal Harem opcit,p96
24.Ibib, p.100.
25.C.M villers, Gardens of the great Mughals London: 1913, p135.
26.Manucci.vol.II opcit,P.340.
27.Abdul Aziz. Arms and Jewellery on Indian Mughals.opcit,p.132.
28.P.N chopra. Life and letters under the Mughal Agra, opcit, p.25.
29.Abdul Aziz.the imperial of the Indian Mughal Lahore: 1942, p.137.

67
 CHAPTER - EIGHT
COMMON INDIAN WOMAN
8.0 Position of common women.
There is a wealth of information about the lives of queens, princesses
and aristocratic ladies, but where the common women of India stood in those
days Muhgal society was strikingly unequal and pitilessly exploitative.
Famines and natural disasters made the life of Indians quite miserable.
The condition of women has differed from time to time. In Hindustan.
During Mughal rule, she occupied a subordinate position having been
subjected to the will of their polygamous masters. The perception of European
travelers is quite interesting and gives a vivid picture. According to John Fryer,
68
“the women are conformable to the wills of their husbands, being truly no more
than their chief slaves: dressing the victuals and waiting till their lords have
dined, before they eat themselves .1
Nevertheless, the women were treated as the “honour” of the family and
no sacrifice was thought too great to maintain it. Terry says. “ it if they
( women) dishonor their husbands beds or being unmarried are found
incontinent and filthy, professing chastity rather than they shall want the
severest punishment, their own brothers hand will be first against them to take
away their lives, for so doing , shall be commended , but not questioned.
Women normally in Mughal India, even at the lowest strata of society,
where gender inequality had little meaning, their life was bleaker then that of
men. Their broken health due to child bearing, weighed down by endless house
hold drudgery. Often in addition to their work in the fields with their men folk,
there was not much more to their lives then bare existence, in middle classes
traders, artisans and skilled workers, things were easier for the housewives.
They had servants in their lives to do the household chores.2
But they had to observe purdah strictly. Manucci says, the ladies of
royalty and nobility had enough leisure time. “Their principal business is to tell
stories and eat betel”. Women had no cultural interest beyond their blind and
rutine devotions.
Mughal Emperor introduced some moderate changes to uplift the
position of common women such as age restriction for marriage, prohibition of
sati, remarriage of widows etc. but these measures had little effect of the life of
the common women. In this environment it is not surprising that daughters
were not favored.3
8.1 Female child.

69
 The birth of a daughter was considered inauspicious. A woman who
unfortunate, gave birth to girls was despised and even sometimes divorced
Abdul Fazal narrates the incident of Saif Khan Koka’s life, His father was
annoyed with his mother because she always gave birth to daughters. She
requested Hamido Bano Begum ( Akbar’s mother ) to abort this child 2 but
Akbar advised her to refrain from doing so .Among Rajputs the birth of a
daughter was considered a curse. The deplorable custom of infanticide was
practiced in the Rajput families.4
Even in Royal families the difference was clear and well – marked. The
whole court celebrated the birth of a prince, while the birth of princesses was
only celebrated by the ladies of royal household.5
But Akbar himself had resolved within himself that if Almighty God
should bestow a son on him, he would go on foot form Agra to Shaikh Muin
uddin Chishti’s (Sufi saint) mausoleum, a distance of about 140 Kos.
According to Badaoni, “the best son in law, a man has is grave” shows
the controversial position of son in law in Indian society. How he exploited the
parents of girl on the issue of property and harassed his wife on various issues.6
8.2 Education.
Available information indicates that the education was confined to the
women of royal house hold and elite classes. Yusuf Hussain writes, “Besides
royalty and nobility. Even among the middle classes the education of girls was
quite common. There were Makabs for imparting religious educations to girls
in private house where elderly ladies taught the Quran Even the widows of
middle class families conducted private schools in their houses for the benefit
of the daughters of poor people who lived in their quarters”.7
The daughters of Rajput chiefs and some Bengali Zamindars were
usually able to read and write. Women belonging to the ranks of society. Were
70
quite illiterate. Mubarak Ali says, “The education of Sindhi woman was
neglected due to usual Muslim prejudice against female education. Their
education including Hindu women were confined to their religious education to
read Quran and to learn Hamans”8.
Sometimes vocational education was imparted to women. It is said that
Nur Jahan encouraged vocational education , embroidery is thought to have
been a main passion of the empress who and many other women in Zanaha
spent most of their free time stitching and pattering the new styles of
embroidery.
8.3 Marriage as an Institution.
Child marriage had become a popular feature of the social life in Mughal
period; Girls were generally married before they reached the age of nine or ten
years. P.N. Chopra writes, on the account of political and socio religious
circumstances of time, parents tried to marry theirs daughters as early as
possible. The custom in those days did not allow girls, for whatever reasons to
remain at their parent’s home for more than 6 to 8 years after their birth.9
According to Badaoni. “No daughter of the common people was married
until she had gone to the office of the chief of police and the correct age of this
girl had been investigated. Akbar attempted to stop this evil practice of child
marriage and fixed the minimum age limit at 16 years for boys and 14 years for
girls. He abhorred marriage which takes place between men and women before
the age of puberty.10
According to Manucci, “their daughter married even before they have
learnt to talk” . He also writes that the normal age for the marriage of the
daughter of the Brahmis was four or five year and in some cases, the marriage
could be postponed up to ten year of age but never beyond that . 5 Pelsaert
writes. “ the Hindus join their children at the age of only 4 and 5 years,
71
 Ovington says that “ Indian married their children at the age of six or seven
years”7 .Carrey particularly refers to Muslim women by saying ,Mohamedan
Indian marry very young but the idolaters at all ages”11
8.4 Polygamy.
Most of the upper classes in Mughal India Hindu and Muslim were
polygamous. John fryer writes , “ polygamy is not only tolerated but
commanded, and whoring is reckoned meritorious among the moors the for this
carnal couple allows four lawful wives in matrimony at one and the same time,
besides concubines and indefinite number as every one’s substance is able to
provide for with serving maids and Slaves: besides which they may have for a
determinate price, such as they shall hire for an hour, day month or a year ,
any born in these three families of bed fellow may be reputed as legitimate,
provided the reputed father’s claim two parts and women on of the child”12
In the extreme case if a wife proved to be barren, they had the liberty to marry
another one with the consent of the Brahmans.
A mughal marriage contract especially in Muslim marriage protected the
woman against polygamy and concubines. An administrative text of 1694-96
A.D. reproduces this contract which lays down following conditions:
1. If a husband contracts a second marriage. The present wife would be free
2. .The husband would not bring a concubine : if he did, the wife would free
her, sell in the market and take the price as a part of dower ( mehr)
3. The husband should not beat the wife. If he did this, it would be reason enough
for the woman seeking repudiation of marriage.
4. The wife could similarly seek dissolution if the husband remained absent for 3
year without providing subsistence to wife.13
Marriage contract having similar terms disclosed in a collection of documents
from Surat complied in 1650 in which all terms appeared. It shows that this
72
custom prevailed in even middle and lower classes. According to Shireen
Moosvi, sometimes a total subsistence of the wife was a copper Tanka a day
and tow saris a year enough for her.
8.5 Dowry.
Dowry was the common social feature of medieval Indian society. The
marriage of girls was sometimes a difficult problem because of the custom of
dowry ( Dehej) . It was given in the form of jewels, ornaments, furniture,
elephant’s horse, maids and other articles by the parents at the time of marriage
of girls. It was an old custom and gradually it became rigorous. This system
was prevalent among the rich commoners as well .It also appears that it was
absent among the Brahmins . 14
Muslim women were provided with additional financial security in form
of Mehr and ante nuptial settlement, by which the groom agreed to pay a
certain amount to his wife even in case of divorce. The amount of Mehr
depends on the status of the boy’s family.15 Jahangir, when he contracted
marriage with Nur jahan, assigned eighty lakhs of asharfis of masques which
was of the value of 7 cores and 20 lakh of rupees . In Shahjahan’s marriage
with Arjamand Bano Begum the Mehr was fixed at 5 Lakhs likewise in Dara’s
marriage with Sultan pervaiz’s daughter, Nadira Bano Begum, Mehr was five
lakhs of rupees. Not only in the Royal / Nobel families. It was a general
practice to fix a handsome amount of Mehr. The idea behind this high amount
was to check the possibilities of divorce in society. Emperor Akbar was
believed that fixing up of high amount of Mehr was a preventive measure
against rash divorce.
8.6 Divorce.
In regard to divorce a man had greater rights than woman. He could
divorce his wife even against her will. During the reign of Akbar, the mother of
73
Saif Khan Koka (his general ) was threatened by her husband that if she would
gave birth to another girl, she would be divorced.
Sometimes , divorce remained the last resort to bring peace between
husband and wife. Gulbarg Begum, daughter of Nizam uddin Ali Barias was
married to Mir Shah Hussain but this alliance was not happy and separation
took place in form of divorce .Emperor Babur’s sister Khanzada Begun was
divorced by Shabani Khan. She favored his brother against her husband.
Once the wife of Amir Khan (Kabul ) named Shahebji was going in a
litter on the back of an elephant when it ran amuck. She abandoned her purdah
Divorce was considered a stigma not only for woman but also for men in this
age. As Badaoni remarks, “ since divorce is the least liked of permission able
things, resorting to divorce is far from manliness, what an excellent custom the
people of India have that they shun the practice and consider it as the worst of
abuses, so that if someone calls them “ divorcer”, they out of simplicity, would
become intent on killing him”-16
Sometimes the process of separation caused exploitation especially for
woman. Manucci writes, “If any woman objects to living with her husband and
goes to lodge a complaint, he (the qazi) keeps her three days in his house and
after that interval he pronounces judgment on the dispute between them just as
he thinks best. No one can demand the reasons for his acts in that respect
whether his decision is a good or a bad one”.
Manucci refers to a case which was decided by Qazi Abdul Wahhab
( during Aurangzeb’s ) reign in his presence. According to his observation the
Chief Qazi of the realm had taken liberty of a woman‘s sin just only for his
lust. Sometimes a man had to divorce his wife against his own will. because
of the pressure of King. Abdul Was divorced his beautiful wife as Akbar
wished to marry her. In that age if the emperor expressed his desire to marry a
74
married woman. Her husband was bound to divorce her. Otherwise he would
be a victim of King’s anger. Mnnucci writes that the “husband had to pay
compensation to the divorced wife for her maintenance “17.
A woman could demand separation; this practice was also prevalent in
Mughal India. In such cases an agreement entered into for the purpose of
dissolving marriage, it was known as “Khula”. Badaoni refers to a lady who
filed for separation ( Khula) from her husband on the grounds of his absence
from her.After divorce a woman had to live a life of seclusion an abstain from
all luxuries for three months. This specific period was called “ Iddat” which
was extended in the case of a pregnant lady.
During this period a woman could not use cosmetics . Ornaments, new
and fashionable dresses and betel leaf for the purpose of dying lips. She was
also forbidden to go out of her house, except under unavoidable circumstances.
In this specific period she was not allowed to much another man. The above
mentioned restriction were strictly observed by the Muslim ladies of Mughal
age as these were religious injunctions.18
According to Manucci when the husband is tired of his wife he gives her
a straw called Turumbo ( turumbu)”. By giving of this straw the marriage is
broken. This custom was prevalent in Sudras in Mughal India .19
Among Hindus Dr. Altekar rightly speaks no divorce was allowed. Even
if the husband was a moral wreck or grievously ill treated his wife.”20.
8.7 Widow’s Remarriage.
Under this custom Aurangzeb wished to marry Rana Dil widow of Dara
Shukoh, but she refused. Muslim widow participated in ceremonies, feasts,
festivals and other important events.21 Emperor Aurangzeb had great respect
for widow . He made fine arrangements for them into their respective
apartments, which were given the name “ Suhagpura”. They ( widows)
75
preferred a life of solitude and prayers which was regarded the highest virtue in
those days.22
8.8 Sati (Widow‘s Self Immolation)
Jahangir writes, “It is the custom among the Hindus that after the death
of their husband women burn themselves, whether from love or to save the
honor of their fathers, or from being ashamed before their son in law”. He
further writes, this custom of widow immolating themselves on the funeral
pyres of their husbands was not wide immolating themselves on the funeral
pyres of their husbands was not wide especially Raj put. Even among Raj puts.
It was by not universal”23. There are thousands who do not do it according to
pelsaert , in Agra in the reign of Jahangir sati occurred only two or three times
a week .
The normal practice of sati was for the widow to burn herself with her
husband’s body on the same pyre, if the husband died on battle as in the case of
Rajputs. “Their women immolate themselves with still great alacrity on
receiving the turban sent to them as a sign of their husband’s death, with it in
their hands they are cremated “ 24
Manucci reports. When Raja Bhao Singh
(son of Man Sing) died in Deccan due to excessive drinking not in the
battlefield two wives and eight concubines burned themselves in the fire of
fidelity for him.
Sati was usually voluntary , “this deed was done not under compulsion
but out of sheer love, Pelsaert states in appreciation . Bernier records a young
widow of only twelve years who was forcefully scarified in Lahore . 25Manucci
informs , when the widow mounted to the funeral pyre her consent was
reconfirmed before lighting the pyre. Then woman is spoken of her name and
three times distinctly she is called on to say whether she consents to go to
heaven, to this she replies in affirmative.26
76
8.9 Purdah.
It is said that Muslem were responsible for the growth of purdah system
in India. Even in ancient times, women observed certain veil or ghoongat.27
According to S.M. Jaffar “seclusion of women could be traced back to all
ancient communities and it was particularly so among the aristocracy during
the palmy days of Hindu civilization 28.
The patriarchal society of India where male was considered the master
penetrated this idea of seclusion in the society. The seclusion of women has
been copied “ from the Muhammadans, but only by the richer classes, among
the poor it is quite unknown.29Purdah was mainly confined to the rich and well-
to-do classes both the communities in Mughal period. Hamlition writes, “The
Mohammad women always go veiled when they appear outdoors. John fryer
comments it is common among Moors, their women veil themselves when they
go out.
Ladies of upper strata strictly observed purdah and none could see the
toes of their feet in fact purdah come to be considered as a measure of
responsibility among higher classes. Della Valle remarks, “ for these unless
they be dishonest or poor never come abroad “5 According to Careri “ the
Mohammadan women do not appear in public except only the vulgar sort, and
the Leud ones “ Even the liberal King like Akbar had to issue orders that “ if a
young woman was found running about the streets and bazaars of the town and
while doing so did not veil herself or allowed herself to become unveiled, she
was to go to the quarters of the prostitute and take up the profession.
Dr. Yusuf Hussain also admits, “Purdah was observed much more
strictly among Muslim ladies, but the Hindu aristocracy and the middle classes
in northern India, being in a position to do without the labour of their women,
also observed it.
77
 Among the poorer classes it was necessary for women and elaborate
niceties of etiquette were set inside but even the lower class women carefully
concealed their faced form men when they appeared in public. 30 In Mughal
period, no Muslim could tolerate that his wife went outside without veil. Once
when a solider of Indian army travelling with his wife and daughter, the tax
collector on the way tried to search the cart by force, where the ladies were
sitting. The solider became so furious he cut off the head of the tax collector
and wounded several of his attendants. He also felt himself dishonored as his
wife and daughter had been seen by the tax collector. She killed his ladies too.
It was considered dishonor if a Muslim lady of high family discarded
pardah to even her own life. According to Mannucci, “among the
Mohammadans it was great dishonor for a family when a wife is compelled to
uncover herself.31
Amit Khan felt so much insulted a decided to divorce his wife when she
had fails to observe Purdah in an attempt to save her life by leaping from the
back of elephant that had run amuck.
Ladies of elite classes even could not move out with-out aristocratic
veils. In royal harem princesses used to take the permission of the king if they
wanted to go out.
None dared to pass on the road when the royal ladies went on in a procession if
a Muslim lady of rank for any reason discarded purdah it was a matter of
shame for her as well as for her males.
Purdah was so strictly observed that even that the doctors, being males
were not allowed to see and touch a woman patient. Manucci writes, “
Mohammedan’s Are very touchy in the matter of allowing their women to be
seen and even touched by the hand .31 It was worth mentioning that among
royal ladies , Nur Jahan was an exception . She broke the purdah convention
78
and did not mind to come out in public. Aurangzeb was the second monarch
after Firuz Shah Taghluq to forbid the visit of Muslim women to the
mausoleums and shrives due to Purdah ( Shariat forbade such outdoor
movement) .32
8.10 Ornaments.
The names of ornaments used by the common women among Hindus
and Muslim were the same used by the ladies of upper of class (aristocracy) of
the Mughals. The material and patterns of the ornaments of common women
were different. The common women instead of gold, silver and precious jewels
wore the ornaments of copper, tin, glass, and ivory.
The names of ornaments were different in Bengal” Sinthi was known as
head ornament. Besar or Nakh chhabi was used for nose. The names of ear
ornaments were Kundl, Khanbala, Hiramam Alkadi, and Maen Kadi. Around
the neck Bengali women wore Sateswari, Gribapatr, around arms Tad , Angada
Anata, Keyur ,Maduli, Ratanchud and in toes Uncheha and ujjhatika .33
Ornaments of Mughal age certainly provided maximum degree of
attraction for the India women of different classes and without them perhaps
they could not even dream of enjoying the pleasures of life. In fact all the
ornaments , whatever the metal of the ornaments they could be used only by
the women whose husband were alive.34

79
 8.11 Reference.
1. Thomas Roe and Fryer. Travels in India in the 17th century opcit, p.450.
2. Abraham Early. The last spring. The Lives and Times of Great Mughals.
India, opcit, pp.663.
3. Manucci vol.1,p.63
4. A.S Altekar, The position of women in Hindu civilization opcit,p.9.
5. Manucci vol.1,p.343.
6. Sunita zaidi. Women or muslim women in medieval in Hajira kumar (ed)status
of women in India opcit,p.59
7. Yousuf Husan Ali. Glimpses of medieval culture.NewDelhi 2(ed)1959,p.93
8. Mubark Ali. A social and cultural history 1987, p.65.
9. P.N chopra. Life and letters under the Mughal Delhi: 1975, p.113.
10.M.P Srivastava, Social life under the great Mughals. Allahabad 1978, P.91.
11.Manucci opcit, p.59.
12.John Fryer. Anew account of east India and Persia.opcit, p.382.
13.Munshi Nand Ram Kayasth srivastavya, lucknow,p.88.
14.Ain Akbar Vol3, p.339.
15.Zinat kausar.Muslem women in medieval India Delhi1992,p.287
16.Mirza Haider ,Tarikh I Rashidi(e. Densonand elias,p.239
17.Manucci vol.111,opcit,p.152

80
Conclusion.
Simon de Beauvoir rightly quoted, “one is not a born woman
(subordinate). But society makes her a woman “. Indian society was
completely based on the feudalistic values. In the primitive division of labor
she had a major role in the economic life. When the concept of individual
owner ship appeared maternal authority gave place to paternal authority,
property, being inherited form father to son and no longer form woman to her
clan. Woman is subjugated is subjugated in this type of society. In this
subjugation she is depicted as a commodity in the popular literature of that
period.
The status of woman in Indian region was rarely cited by the
contemporary official and non-official historian of medieval period depicts the
share of women in the course of history. But the picture of Indian woman
portrayed by these sources is purely negative, as “Manu allotted to woman (a
love of their) bed, (of their) seat and (of) ornaments, impure desires, wrath,
dishonesty, malice and bad conduct. ( Dhrmashastra) appears to be a woman
tater, he writes with an acidic pen, whenever he gets an opportunity of
mentioning details about women. To him women should observe Puhdah,
engage themselves in spinning and weaving rather than take interest in state
activity. According to his views, Women are always dishonest and disloyal.
Anir Khusrau, a poet historian of medieval age lamented over the birth
of his daughter, “I wish you were not born, and if you were, it would have been
better if you had been a boy “.
Amir Kushrau advised women to keep their eyes low and warned them
they should not sit near anyone except their husband. Women should conceal
in pardah as it was the only source to gauge the morality of a woman.

81
 In medieval time’s man’s attitude towards woman fixed expression in
the following lines of Malik ul hammad Janise,.
“A woman should facilitate her husband if he wants to slap her by
molding her face towards him.”
Women were compelled to obey the authority of the males for the sake
of obedience. It was the tragedy of the centuries. In an agricultural unit like
India, the concept of ownership gave birth to a feudal society. The moral
standards of a feudal society defined and protected by the religious class. The
powerful landed aristocracy supported them for their existence. First they
atomized the society into male and female. Then they had proven woman as a
biological being. “ .A woman very simple, say the fanciers of simple formulas:
she is womb, an ovary: she is a female, this word is sufficient to define
her” .The only duty assigned to the woman is reproduction.
“In this great drama of reproduction, around which all life revolves,
males play a minor and subsidiary role. In the crisis of birth, he stands
helplessly aside, understanding how trivial and subordinate creature developed
his race. That creation is in the work of her flesh and blood. Then he begins to
understand why primitive people and great religions worshipped motherhood”.
Woman had the role of reproduction of heirs and home making .Men
was held to be the “bread winners”. Consequently, men enjoyed supremacy
over women both in family and society.
In means the assignment of domestic roles for women and non-domestic
roles for men was due to the biological differences. However, it was also due to
the cultural practices and consequent pattern of socialization. Whatever the
reason behind this gender discrimination, it had sharpened the rift between the
rights of males and females.

82
 Muslim rulers did not try to change the social system of Hindustan
which was completely based upon feudalistic values. No doubt rulers like Ala-
ud-din Khilji, Firoz Shah Tughluq, Sher Khan Suri and Akbar were great
reformers and good administrators. They implemented various reforms to
improve the organizational structure of Indian society but they were not
interested to transform the society or to change the status of women.
The rulers had rejuvenated the political system, economy, architecture,
music and paintings etc. but they could not change the customs and taboos of
Indian society, because they were also the protectors of the traditions of faucal
society.

83
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