Course layout

· Soil compaction
· Stresses in soil mass due to self-weight
· Stresses in soil mass due to external loads
· Consolidation
· Shear Strength of Soil
· Slope stability

References
· Fundamentals of geotechnical engineering, by Braja M. Das
· Elements of Soil Mechanics by Smith and smith
· Soil Mechanics by R F Craig
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Introduction
· In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other
engineering structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their
unit weights.
· Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soils.
· Roller compactors are generally used in the field for soil compaction.

General Principles of compaction

· Compaction is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires
mechanical energy.
· Water acts as a lubricant agent on the soil particles. So, the soil particles slip
over each other and move into a densely packed position.
· The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the moisture content
increases (Figure 1).

Figure 1 A Typical compaction curve

· Beyond a certain moisture content =OMC, (Figure 1), any increase in the
moisture content tends to reduce the dry unit weight. This is because the

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water takes up the spaces that would have been occupied by the solid
particles.
· The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is attained is
generally referred to as the optimum moisture content.
The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction and the optimum moisture content is called the Proctor compaction
test.
There are two types of Proctor compaction test:
i. Standard Proctor Test
ii. Modified Proctor Test
i. Standard Proctor Test
· In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 943.3
cm3, see Figure 2.
· The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted in three
equal layers by a hammer.
· Number of blows on each layer is 25.
· The hammer weighs 24.4 N (mass ≈ 2.5 kg), and has a drop of 304.8 mm. For
each test.
· The moist unit weight of compaction can be calculated as
(1)
=
( )
Where = weight of the compacted soil in the mold
) = volume of the mold (= 943.3 cm )
3
(

Figure 2 Standard Proctor test equipment: (a) mold; (b) hammer

For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the
laboratory. With known moisture content, the dry unit weight d can be calculated
as:

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= (2)
(%)
1+
100

where (%) percentage of moisture content.

The values of determined from Eq. (2) can be plotted against the
corresponding moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the
optimum moisture content for the soil.

For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is
obtained when there is no air in the void spaces—that is, when the degree of
saturation equals 100%. Thus, the maximum dry unit weight at a given moisture
content with zero air voids can be given by
= (3)
1
+
where
zero-air-void unit weight
unit weight of water
specific gravity of soil solids

To obtain the variation of with moisture content, assume several values of ,

such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and so on. Then use Eq. (3) to calculate for various
values of .
Figure 1 also shows the variation of . Under no circumstances should any part
of the compaction curve lie to the right of the zero-air-void curve.

In several instances it is more convenient to work with density (kg/m3) rather

than unit weight. In that case, Eqs. (1), (2), and (3) can be rewritten as

( )
( / )=
( )( )
=
(%)
1+
100
=
1
+
where:
, , density, dry density, and zero-air-void density, respectively
Density of water (1000 kg/m3)
Mass of compacted soil in the mold
( ) Volume of mold=943.3×10-6 m3

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The compaction energy per unit volume, E, used for the standard Proctor test can
be given as
ℎ ℎ ℎ
× × ×
ℎ ℎ
=
or
(25) × (3) × (24.4 × 10 ) × (0.3048 )
= = 591.3 . /
943.3 × 10

ii- Modified Proctor Test

With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the
standard Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions. This is
sometimes referred to as the modified Proctor test. (See Figure 3)

For Fine material For coarse material

1. The volume of the mold is 943.3 cm3
[as in the case of the standard
Proctor test].
2. The soil is compacted in five layers.
3. The hammer weight is 44.5 N (mass
=4.536 kg).
4. The drop of the hammer is 457.2
mm.
5. The number of hammer blows for
each layer is 25 [as in the case of the
standard Proctor test].
1. The volume of the mold is 2124
cm3
2. The soil is compacted in five
layers.
3. The hammer weight is 44.5 N
(mass =4.536 kg).
4. The drop of the hammer is 457.2
mm.
5. The number of hammer blows
for each layer is 56.

Figure 3 Standard (right) and modified (left) Proctor hammers and molds

The compaction energy for unit volume of soil in the modified test can be
calculated as

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(25) × (5) × (44.5 × 10 ) × (0.4572 )

= = 2696 . /
943.3 × 10
Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in an
increase of the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase of the
maximum dry unit weight is accompanied by a decrease of the optimum
moisture content.

Factors Affecting Compaction

1- Soil Type
The soil type—that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the soil grains, specific
gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of clay minerals present—has a great
influence on the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content.
Four different types of compaction curves are observed as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Various types of compaction curves encountered in soils

2- Compaction Effort
If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture–unit
weight curve will also change. This can be demonstrated with the aid of Figure 5.

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Figure 5 Effect of compaction energy on the compaction of a sandy clay

Example 1
The laboratory test data for a standard Proctor test are given in the table. Find
the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture content.
Volume of Proctor mold Mass of wet soil in the Moisture content (%)
(cm )
3 mold (kg)
943.3 1.48 8.4
943.3 1.88 10.2
943.3 2.12 12.3
943.3 1.82 14.6
943.3 1.65 16.8
Solution
We can prepare the following table:
Volume Mass of Moist density Moisture Dry density,
(cm3) wet soil (kg) (kg/m3) content, (%) ρ (kg/m3)
943.3 1.48 1568.96 8.4 1447.38
943.3 1.88 1993.00 10.2 1808.53
943.3 2.12 2247.43 12.3 2001.27
943.3 1.82 1929.40 14.6 1683.60
943.3 1.68 1780.98 16.8 1524.81
The plot of against is shown in Figure 6. From the graph, we observe
Maximum dry density=2004 kg/m3 and Optimum moisture content =12.2%

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2100
d(max)=2004 kg/m
3
2000

Dry Density ρ d (k g/m 3)

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500

1400
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Moisture Content, mc (%)
Figure 6 Standard compaction curve of soil tested in example 1

Example 2
Calculate the zero-air-voids unit weights (in kN/m3) for a soil with Gs=2.68 at
moisture contents 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25%. Plot a graph of against moisture
content.
Solution
Substitute = 2.68 and = 9.81 kN/m in the equation =

(%) ( / )
5 23.18
10 20.73
15 18.75
20 17.12
25 15.74
The plot is shown below

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Field Compaction
Most compaction in the field is done with rollers. There are four common types of
rollers:
1. Smooth-wheel roller (or smooth-drum roller) (for sandy and clayey soils)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired roller (for sandy and clayey soils)
3. Sheepsfoot roller (most effective in compacting clayey soils)
4. Vibratory roller (very efficient in compacting granular soils) . Vibrators
can be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber-tired, or sheepsfoot
rollers to provide vibratory effects to the soil.
5. Hand-held vibrating plates can be used for effective compaction of
granular soils over a limited area.

Factors must be considered to achieve the desired unit weight of compaction in the
field.
1. Soil type and moisture content.
2. The thickness of lift,
3. The intensity of pressure applied by the compacting equipment
4. The number of roller passes (about 10 to 15 roller passes yield the
maximum dry unit weight economically attainable).

The pressure applied at the surface decreases with depth, resulting in a decrease
in the degree of compaction of soil.

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Specifications for Field Compaction

In most specifications for earth work, one stipulation is that the contractor must
achieve a compacted field dry unit weight of 90% to 95% of the maximum dry
unit weight determined in the laboratory by either the standard or modified
Proctor test.
This specification is, in fact, for relative compaction R, which can be expressed as
( )
(%) = × 100
( )
In the compaction of granular soils, specifications are sometimes written in
terms of the required relative density or compaction. [Relative density should
not be confused with relative compaction].

Determination of Field Unit Weight after Compaction

· When the compaction work is progressing in the field, it is useful to know
whether or not the unit weight specified is achieved.
· Three standard procedures are used for determining the field unit weight
of compaction:
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method

Sand Cone Method

The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone attached
at its top (Figure 7). The jar is filled with very uniform dry Ottawa sand. The
weight of the jar, the cone, and the sand filling the jar is determined ( ). In the
field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the soil has been compacted. If
the weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole ( ) is determined and the
moisture content of the excavated soil is known, the dry weight of the soil ( )
can be found as
=
(%)
1+
100
where moisture content.

After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it is
inverted and placed over the hole (Figure 8). Sand is allowed to flow out of the
jar into the hole and the cone. Once the hole and cone are filled, the weight of the
jar the cone, and the remaining sand in the jar is determined (W4), so
= −
Where = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone.

The volume of the hole excavated can now be determined as

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−
=
( )
where
= weight of sand to fill the cone only
( ) = dry unit weight of Ottawa sand used

Thus, the dry unit weight of soil is computed as

=

Figure 7 Sand Cone tests apparatus Figure 8 Field unit weight by sand cone
method

Example 3
The data of sand cone test are as follows. Initial weight of the cone, jar and sand,
( = 4320 gm). The weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole
( = 711 gm), the moisture content = 12% The weight of cone, jar and sand
after performing the test, = 3017 gm.
weight of sand to fill the cone, = 849 gm . The density of the sand,
( ) = 1.42 gm/cm .
Determine the field density of a compacted soil using

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Solution
The weight of the dry soil, , is:

=
(%)
1+
100
711
= = 634.8 gm
12
1+
100
The weight of sand to fill the hole and cone, is:
= −
= 4320 − 3017 = 1303 gm
The volume, , of the hole excavated can now be determined as
−
=
( )

1303 − 849
= = 319.7 cm
1.42
The dry unit weight of soil is

634.8
= = 1.98 gm/cm
319.7

Rubber Balloon Method

The procedure for the rubber balloon
method is similar to that for the sand
cone method; a test hole is made, and
the moist weight of the soil removed
from the hole and its moisture content
are determined. However, the volume
of the hole is determined by
introducing a rubber balloon filled with
water from a calibrated vessel into the
hole, from which the volume can be
read directly.

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Appendix A
Illustration of sand cone test procedure
W1= Initial weight of the cone, jar and W2= The weight of the moist soil
sand excavated from the hole

W3, weight of the dry excavated soil

Performing the experiment W4= The weight of cone, jar and sand
after performing the test

Wc= weight of sand to fill the cone Weight of sand in the hole= −

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Appendix B
Illustration of rubber balloon test

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Introduction:
To analyze problems such as compressibility of soils, bearing capacity of
foundations, stability of embankments, and lateral pressure on earth-retaining
structures, engineers need to know the nature of the distribution of stress along
a given cross section of the soil profile – that is, what fraction of the normal stress
at a given depth in a soil mass is carried by water in the void spaces and what
fraction is carried by the soil skeleton at the points of contact of the soil particles.
This issue is referred to as the effective stress concept.

Three types of stresses are considered in

soils:
1- Total stress: The total vertical stress
acting at a point in the soil (e.g. stress in Fig.
9) is due to the weight of everything that lies
above that point including soil, water and any
load applied to the soil surface.
Total stress increases with depth and with unit
weight and the total vertical stress at depth ℎ
in the soil due to the weight of the soil acting
above, as depicted in Fig. 9, is defined
Fig. 9 Total stress in a
homogeneous soil mass.
Total stresses: = .ℎ
Where: is the unit weight of the soil.
ℎ depth of soil layer to the required point.
If the soil is dry ( = 0), use
If the soil is moist, or
(0 < < 1)
If the soil is saturated
( = 1), use

If the soil is multi-layered, the total vertical stress is determined by summing the
stresses induced by each layer of soil.

2- Pore pressure
The magnitude of the pore pressure at a point in the soil depends on the depth
below the water table and the flow conditions.
Pore water = .
pressure: where : depth of water to the required point

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It is clear that pore pressures are

positive below the water table. Above
the water table however, the soil is
saturated with capillary water in a
state of suction, and here the pore
pressures will be negative.
= − .ℎ
Where ℎ =height of capillary rise.

Fig. 10 Hydrostatic pore water pressure.

The capillary rise can be determined from
ℎ =
Where
= effective diameter (particle diameter corresponding to 10% finer)
= void ratio
= a constant varies from 0.1 to 0.5 cm2.
3- Effective stress
The stress that controls changes in the volume and strength of a soil is known as
the effective stress.
Effective stresses: = −

Example 4
A soil profile is
shown in Fig. 11,
calculate the total
stress, pore water
pressure, and
effective stress at
points A, B, C, and
D.

Fig. 11 Illustration of Example 4

Solution

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Example 5
A 3 m layer of sand, of saturated unit weight 18 kN/m3, overlies a 4 m layer of clay,
of saturated unit weight 20 kN/m3. If the groundwater level occurs within the sand
at 2 m below the ground surface, determine the total and effective vertical stresses
acting at the centre of the clay layer. The sand above groundwater level may be
assumed to be saturated.

Fig. 12 Illustration of Example 5

Solution:
For this sort of problem it is usually best to draw a diagram to represent the soil
conditions (see Fig. 12).
Total vertical stress at centre of clay = Total weight of soil above
= 2m saturated clay+3m saturated sand
= 2×20+3×18= 94 kPa

Pore water pressure at center of clay= weight of water above

= (2 + 1) = 3 × 9.81 = 29.43 kPa

Effective stress = Total stress−Water pressure

= 94 − 29.43 = 64.6 kPa

Example 6
A 5 m deep deposit of silty sand lies above a 4 m deep deposit of gravel. The
gravel is underlain by a deep layer of stiff clay. The ground water table is found 2
m below the ground surface. The soil properties are:
of sand above GWT = 1.7 Mg/m3
of sand below GWT = 1.95 Mg/m3
of gravel = 2.05 Mg/m3
Draw the distributions of vertical total stress, pore water pressure, and vertical
effective stress with depth down to the clay layer.

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Solution:
The values of total stress, pore pressure and effective stress are calculated at the
salient points through the soil profile. These points are where changes in
conditions occur, such as the horizon between two soils.

Depth= 0 m =0: =0: =0

Depth= 2 m = (1.70 × 9.81) × 2 = 33.4

=0
= 33.4 − 0 = 33.4

Depth= 5 m = 33.4 + (1.95 × 9.81 × 3) = 90.8

= 9.81 × 3 = 29.4
= 90.8 − 29.4 = 61.4

Depth= 9 m = 90.8 + (2.05 × 9.81 × 4) = 171.2

= 9.81 × 7 = 68.7
= 171.2 − 68.7 = 102.5

The distributions are then plotted (see Fig. 13). Note that the values of total
stress, pore pressure and effective stress all increase linearly between successive
depths in the profile.

Fig. 13 Illustration of Example 6

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Introduction
· When a load is applied to the soil surface, it increases the stresses within the
soil mass.
· The increased stresses are greatest directly under the loaded area, but extend
indefinitely in all directions.
· Estimation of vertical stresses at any point in a soil-mass due to external
vertical loadings are of great significance in the prediction of settlements of
buildings, bridges, embankments and many other structures.
· The formulas that are most widely used are the Boussinesq and Westergaard
formulas. Theses formulas were first developed for point loads acting at the
surface. These formulas have been integrated to give stresses below uniform
strip loads and rectangular loads.
VERTICAL STRESS INCREASE DUE TO VARIOUS TYPES OF LOADING
1. Stress Caused by a Point Load
i. Boussinesq’s method
ii. ii- Westergaard’s method
2. Vertical Stress Caused by a Line Load of Finite Length
3. Vertical Stress Caused by a Strip Load
4. Vertical Stress Below a Uniformly Loaded
i. Circular Area
ii. ii- rectangular area
5. Vertical Stress Beneath Loaded Areas of Irregular Shape
6. 2:1 approximate method

1. Stress Caused by a Point Load

i. Boussinesq’s method

Figure 14 Stresses in a soil mass caused by a point load

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Boussinesq’s solution for normal stresses at a point caused by the point load
(see Figure 14) is:
3 1
Δ =
2 [( / ) + 1] /
Where: = +
The above Equation can be rewritten as:
Δ =
The variation of for various values of / is given in Table 1.
Table 1 Variation of
/ /
0 0.4775 0.9 0.1083
0.1 0.4657 1.0 0.0844
0.2 0.4329 1.5 0.0251
0.3 0.3849 1.75 0.0144
0.4 0.3295 2.0 0.0085
0.5 0.2733 2.5 0.0034
0.6 0.2214 3.0 0.0015
0.7 0.1762 4.0 0.0004
0.8 0.1386 5.0 0.00014
ii- Westergaard’s method
Westergaard’s solution for normal stresses at a point A caused by the point load
P (see Figure 14) is:
/
1
Δ =
2 +( / )
where
1−2
=
2−2
= +
=
Typical values of Poisson’s ratio for various soils are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 Representative values of Poisson’s ratio

Type of soil Poisson’s ratio,
Loose sand 0.2–0.4
Medium sand 0.25–0.4
Dense sand 0.3–0.45
Silty sand 0.2–0.4
Soft clay 0.15–0.25
Medium clay 0.2–0.5

Westergaard’s equation can be rewritten as:

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Δ =
Table 3 gives the variation of with .

Table 3 Variation of
/
= = . = .
0 0.3183 0.4244 0.9550
0.1 0.3090 0.4080 0.8750
0.2 0.2836 0.3646 0.6916
0.3 0.2483 0.3074 0.4997
0.4 0.2099 0.2491 0.3480
0.5 0.1733 0.1973 0.2416
0.6 0.1411 0.1547 0.1700
0.7 0.1143 0.1212 0.1221
0.8 0.0925 0.0953 0.0897
0.9 0.0751 0.0756 0.0673
1.0 0.0613 0.0605 0.0516
1.5 0.0247 0.0229 0.0173
2.0 0.0118 0.0107 0.0076
2.5 0.0064 0.0057 0.0040
3.0 0.0038 0.0034 0.0023
4.0 0.0017 0.0015 0.0010
5.0 0.0009 0.0008 0.0005
In most practical problems of geotechnical engineering, Boussinesq’s solution is
preferred over Westergaard’s solution. For that reason, further development of
stress calculation under various types of loading will use Boussinesq’s solution in
this chapter.

2. Vertical Stress Caused by a Line Load of Finite Length

Figure 15 shows a line load of intensity and having a length located on the
surface of a soil mass.

Figure 15 Line load of length L on the surface of a soil mass

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The vertical stress increase (Δ ) at a point (0, 0, ) can be obtained by

integration of Boussinesq’s solution as
Δ =
Figure 16 shows the plot of for various values of and .
where = / and = /

Figure 16 Variation of with and

Example
Refere to Figure (below). Given a=3 m, L=4.8m, q=50kN/m.
Determine the increase in stress, Δ , due to the line load at
a. Point with coordinates (0,0,6 m)
b. Point with coordinates (0,2.4, 6 m)
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Solution:
Part a:
3
= = = 0.5
6
4.8
= = = 0.8
6
From Figure 16, for =0.5 and =0.8, the value of is about 0.158. so
50
Δ = = (0.158) = 1.32 /
6
Part b:

As shown in Figure 17, the method of superposition can be used. Referring to

Figure 17

Δ =Δ +Δ
For obtaining Δ (Figure 17a)
3 2.4
= = 0.5 and = = = 0.4
6 6
From Figure 6.15, ( ) ≈ 0.095.
Similarly, for Δ (Figure 14b)
3
= = 0.5
6
2.4
= = = 0.4
6
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From Figure 16, ( ) ≈ 0.095.

Hence Δ = Δ + Δ
50 50
Δ = ( ) + ( ) ⇒Δ = (0.095) + (0.095) = 1.58 /
6 6

Figure 17

3. Vertical Stress Caused by a Strip Load (Finite Width and Infinite

length)
The vertical stress increase at point A due to strip loaded area shown in Figure
18 can be computed as:
[ − − ( /4)]
Δ = tan − tan −
− ( /2) + ( /2) [ + − ( /4)] +
The above Equation can be simplified to the form
Δ = [ + sin cos( + 2 )]

The angles and are defined in Figure 18.

Figure 18 Vertical stress caused by a flexible strip load (Note: Angles measured in
counter-clockwise direction are taken as positive.)
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Table 4 shows the variation of Δ / with 2 / for 2 / equal to 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5,
and 2.0. This table can be conveniently used to calculate the vertical stress at a
point caused by a flexible strip load.

Table 4 Variation of / with / and /

2 / 2 /
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0 1.000 1.000 0.500 — —
0.5 0.959 0.903 0.497 0.089 0.019
1.0 0.818 0.735 0.480 0.249 0.078
1.5 0.668 0.607 0.448 0.270 0.146
2.0 0.550 0.510 0.409 0.288 0.185
2.5 0.462 0.437 0.370 0.285 0.205
3.0 0.396 0.379 0.334 0.273 0.211
3.5 0.345 0.334 0.302 0.258 0.216
4.0 0.306 0.298 0.275 0.242 0.205
4.5 0.274 0.268 0.251 0.226 0.197
5.0 0.248 0.244 0.231 0.212 0.188

Example
With reference to Figure 18, we are given =200 kN/m2, =6m, and =3m.
Determine the vertical stress increase at x=±9m, ±6m, ±3m, and 0 m. plot a
graph of Δ against x.
Solution:
For x=9 the value of 2x/B=3, which is not exist in Table 4, so we have to
calculate it using the equation
Δ 1
Δ = [ + sin cos( + 2 )] ⇒ = [ + sin cos( + 2 )]
q
From the figure
6
tan = ⇒ = 63.43°
3
12
tan( + ) = ⇒ + = 75.96°
3
⇒ = 12.53° = 0.219 (in radian)

Δ 1
= 0.219 + sin(12.53) cos 12.53 + 2(63.43)
q
Δ
= 0.0171
q

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The other values of for [x=±6m, ±3m, and 0 m] can be obtained directly form
Table 4
So, we can create the following table
x(m) 2x/B 2z/B / kN/m2
±9 ±3 1 0.0171 3.42
±6 ±2 1 0.078 15.6
±3 ±1 1 0.480 96.0
0 0 1 0.8183 163.66
The plot of Δ versus is given in Figure 19

Figure 19 Plot of against distance

4. Vertical Stress Below a Uniformly Loaded

i. Circular Area
Figure 20 shows a circular loaded subjected to a pressure of radius . Point is
located at depth below the center of the loaded area.
The vertical stress increase (Δ ) at a point can be computed as
1
Δ = 1−
[( / ) + 1] /

The stress increase at any depth located at a radial distance measured

horizontally from the center of the loaded area can be given as
Δ
=
The Variation of with / and / is given in Table 5

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Figure 20 Vertical stress below the

center of a uniformly loaded
flexible circular area

Table 5 Variation of
/
z/R 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
0.1 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.996 0.976 0.484
0.2 0.992 0.991 0.987 0.970 0.890 0.468
0.3 0.976 0.973 0.963 0.922 0.793 0.451
0.4 0.949 0.943 0.920 0.860 0.712 0.435
0.5 0.911 0.902 0.869 0.796 0.646 0.417
0.6 0.864 0.852 0.814 0.732 0.591 0.400
0.7 0.811 0.798 0.756 0.674 0.545 0.367
0.8 0.756 0.743 0.699 0.619 0.504 0.366
0.9 0.701 0.688 0.644 0.570 0.467 0.348
1.0 0.646 0.633 0.591 0.525 0.434 0.332
1.2 0.546 0.535 0.501 0.447 0.377 0.300
1.5 0.424 0.416 0.392 0.355 0.308 0.256
2.0 0.286 0.286 0.268 0.248 0.224 0.196
2.5 0.200 0.197 0.191 0.180 0.167 0.151
3.0 0.146 0.145 0.141 0.135 0.127 0.118
4.0 0.087 0.086 0.085 0.082 0.080 0.075

ii. Verical stress caused by a rectangular loaded area

Figure 21 shows a rectangular area subjected to a pressure . The vertical stress
increase (Δ ) at a point at depth located below a corner of the rectangular
area can be computed as

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Δ =
The value of is function of and ,
where
=

=
The variation of with and is shown
in Figure 22

Figure 21 Vertical stress below the corner

of a uniformly loaded flexible rectangular
area

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Figure 22 The variation of with and

To determine the stress at a point below point [not below the corner] at depth
, the loaded area is divided into four rectangles as shown in Figure 23.
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The increase in the stress at depth z below point is:

Δ = ( )+ ( )+ ( )+ ( )

Figure 23 Increase of stress at any

point below a rectangular loaded
flexible area

In many circumstances it may be necessary to calculate the stress increase below

the center of a uniformly loaded rectangular. For convenience the stress increase
may be expressed as
Δ =
Table 6 gives the variation of as function of and
where: = and =
( /2)
Table 6 The variation of with and

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.20 0.994 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997
0.40 0.960 0.976 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977
0.60 0.892 0.932 0.936 0.936 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937
0.80 0.800 0.870 0.878 0.880 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881
1.00 0.701 0.800 0.814 0.817 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818
1.20 0.606 0.727 0.748 0.753 0.754 0.755 0.755 0.755 0.755 0.755
1.40 0.522 0.658 0.685 0.692 0.694 0.695 0.695 0.696 0.696 0.696
1.60 0.449 0.593 0.627 0.636 0.639 0.640 0.641 0.641 0.641 0.642
1.80 0.388 0.534 0.573 0.585 0.590 0.591 0.592 0.592 0.593 0.593
2.00 0.336 0.481 0.525 0.540 0.545 0.547 0.548 0.549 0.549 0.549
3.00 0.179 0.293 0.348 0.373 0.384 0.389 0.392 0.393 0.394 0.395
4.00 0.108 0.190 0.241 0.269 0.285 0.293 0.298 0.301 0.302 0.303
5.00 0.072 0.131 0.174 0.202 0.219 0.229 0.236 0.240 0.242 0.244
6.00 0.051 0.095 0.130 0.155 0.172 0.184 0.192 0.197 0.200 0.202
7.00 0.038 0.072 0.100 0.122 0.139 0.150 0.158 0.164 0.168 0.171
8.00 0.029 0.056 0.079 0.098 0.113 0.125 0.133 0.139 0.144 0.147
9.00 0.023 0.045 0.064 0.081 0.094 0.105 0.113 0.119 0.124 0.128
10.00 0.019 0.037 0.053 0.067 0.079 0.089 0.097 0.103 0.108 0.112

Example
The plan of a uniformly loaded rectangular are is shown in Figure 23a. Determine
the vertical stress increase, Δ , below point at a depth z=4m.
Solution:
The stress incrase, Δ can be written as
Δ =Δ −Δ
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Where
Δ =stress incrase due to the loaded area shown in Figure b
Δ =stress incrase due to the loaded area shown in Figure c

Figure 23

For the loaed area shown in Figure b:

2
= = = 0.5
4
4
= = =1
4

From Figure 22 = 0.5 and = 1,

the value of = 0.1225. so
Δ =
Δ = (50)(0.1225) = 18.38 /
Similarly, for the loaded area shown in Figure 23c:
1
= = = 0.25
4
2
= = = 0.5
4
Thus, = 0.0473, Hence
Δ = (50)(0.0473) = 7.1 /
So
Δ = Δ − Δ = 18.38 − 7.1 = 11.28 /

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5. Vertical Stress Beneath Loaded Areas of Irregular Shape

Newmark's Influenc e Chart
· When the loaded areas are not regular in shape, a chart developed by
Newmark is more practical than the methods explained before.
· The vertical stress increment (Δ ) can be determined from graphical method
as:
Δ = . .
where = influence value (constant)
= number of small blocks covered by loaded area
= load per unit area (foundation pressue)

Figure 24 Newmark influence chart

The loaded area is drawn on Newmark chart according to this scale
= ℎ ( ): ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎΔ
Then the number of blocks covered by the loaded area is counted

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Example
A raft foundation of the size given in Figure 25 carries a uniformly distrinuted
load of 300 kN/m2. Estimate the vertical pressure at a depth 9m below the point
O marked on the Figure.
Solution
The depth at which Δ is required is 9 m.
Using Figure 24, the scale of the foundation plan is
= ℎ ( ): ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎΔ
= 3 :9 ⇒ = 1 :3
The drawing is shown in Figure 26, with O coinciding with the center of the chart
Number of blocks covered by the drawing, = 62
Influence factor, =0.005 [given on the Newmark chart, Figure 26]
So,
Δ = . . = (0.005)(62)(300) = 93 /

Figure 25

Figure 26

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6. 2:1 approximate method

· This method assumes that the stress distribute from the loaded point at an
angle of 2 (vertical) to 1 (horizontal).
· The size of the area at any depth is obtained by assuming that the stresses
spread out at an angle of 2:1 as shown in Figure 27.
· The average stress at any depth is:
Δ =
( + )( + )

Figure 27 [2:1 method]

Example
Refer to Figure 27. let Q=200 kN, B=1.5m and L=2.5m, determine the stress
increment at depth 1.7m using 2:1 method.
Solution
Δ =
( + )( + )
200
Δ = = 14.88 /
(1.5 + 1.7)(2.5 + 1.7)

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Fundamentals of Consolidation
When a saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase, the pore water
pressure suddenly increases, which causes pore water drainage.
Pore water drainage is accompanied by a reduction in the volume of the soil mass,
resulting in settlement (Consolidation settlement)

Figure 28
In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the drainage caused by the
Sandy

increase in the pore water pressure is completed immediately. Hence,

soils

consolidation takes place immediately.

Clay soils have low hydraulic conductivity (low permeability coefficient),
hence, the consolidation settlement is time dependent.
soils
Clay

One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

· The one-dimensional consolidation testing procedure was first suggested by
Terzaghi (1925).
· This test is performed in a consolidometer (sometimes referred to as an
oedometer). Figure 29 is a schematic diagram of a consolidometer.
· The soil specimen is placed inside a metal ring with two porous stones, one at
the top of the specimen and another at the bottom. The specimens are usually
63.5 mm in diameter and 25.4 mm thick. The load on the specimen is applied
through a lever arm, and compression is measured by a micrometer dial
gauge. The specimen is kept under water during the test. Each load is usually
kept for 24 hours. After that, the load is usually doubled, thus doubling the
pressure on the specimen, and the compression measurement is continued. At
the end of the test, the dry weight of the test specimen is determined.
· Figure 30 shows a consolidation test in progress.

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Figure 29a Consolidometer

Figure 29b Main parts of consolidation cell

Figure 30 consolidation device

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The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen versus time for a
given load increment is shown in Figure 31. From the plot, it can be observed
that there are three distinct stages, which may be described as follows:
Stage I: Initial compression.
Stage II: Primary consolidation, during which excess pore water pressure is
gradually transferred into effective stress by the expulsion of pore water.
Stage III: Secondary consolidation, which occurs after complete dissipation of the
excess pore water pressure, when some deformation of the specimen
takes place because of the plastic readjustment of soil fabric.

Figure 31 Time–deformation plot during consolidation for a given load increment

Void Ratio–Pressure Plots

After the time–deformation plots for various loadings are obtained in the
laboratory, it is necessary to study the change in the void ratio of the specimen
with pressure. Following is a step-by-step procedure:
1. Calculate the height of solids, Hs, in the soil specimen (Figure 32):
=
Where
= dry weight of the specimen
= area of the specimen
=specific gravity of soil solids
=unit weight of water

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Note: in terms of mass and water density, the above equation can be written as
=
Where = dry mass of the specimen (gm).
= density of water (gm/cm3)

Figure 32 Change of height of specimen in one-dimensional consolidation test

2. Calculate the initial height of voids, :

= −
where = initial height of the specimen.
3. Calculate the initial void ratio, , of the specimen:
.
= = =
.
4. For the first incremental loading (total load/unit area of specimen), which
causes deformation Δ , calculate the change in the void ratio Δ :
Δ
Δ =
Δ is obtained from the initial and the final dial readings for the loading.
5. Calculate the new void ratio, , after consolidation caused by the pressure
increment _1:
= −Δ

For the next loading, which causes additional deformation Δ , the void ratio
at the end of consolidation can be calculated as
= −Δ
Where
Δ
Δ =
Proceeding in a similar manner, we can obtain the void ratios at the end of the
consolidation for all load increments.

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The effective pressures ( ) and the corresponding void ratios ( ) at the end of
consolidation are plotted on semi-logarithmic graph paper. The typical shape of
such a plot is shown in Figure 33.

Figure 33 Typical plot of versus log

Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

A soil in the field at some depth has been subjected to a certain maximum
effective past pressure in its geologic history. This maximum effective past
pressure may be equal to or greater than the existing overburden pressure at the
time of sampling. The reduction of pressure in the field may be caused by natural
geologic processes or human processes.

This leads us to the two basic definitions of clay based on stress history:
1. Normally consolidated: The present effective overburden pressure is the
maximum pressure to which the soil has been subjected in
the past.
2. Overconsolidated: The present effective overburden pressure is less than that
which the soil has experienced in the past. The maximum
effective past pressure is called the preconsolidation
pressure.

Determination of preconsolidation pressure ( )

preconsolidation pressure, , can be determined from the laboratory −
log plot. The procedure follows (see Figure 34):
1. By visual observation, establish point at which the − log plot has a
minimum radius of curvature.
2. Draw a horizontal line .

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3. Draw the line tangent at .

4. Draw the line , which is the bisector of the angle .
5. Project the straight-line portion ℎ of the − log plot back to intersect
at . The abscissa of point is the preconsolidation pressure, .
The overconsolidation ratio ( ) for a soil can now be defined as
=
where
=preconsolidation pressure of a specimen
=present effective vertical pressure

Figure 34 Graphic procedure for determining preconsolidation pressure

Example
Following are the results of a laboratory consolidation test on a soil specimen
obtained from the field. Dry mass of specimen=128 gm, height of specimen at the
beginning of the test =2.54 cm, Gs=2.75, and area of the specimen =30.68 cm2.
Pressure, ,(kN/m2) Change in specimen height,
(cm)
At each loading stage
0 0.000
50 0.052
100 0.023
200 0.034
400 0.042
800 0.065
1600 0.099
3200 0.110
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a. Make necessary calculations and draw the − log curve.

b. Determine the specimen height after each loading stage.
c. Preconsolidation pressure.

Solution
Part a.
Calculation of
128
= = = 1.52
(30.68)(2.75)(1)
Now the following table can be prepared
Pressure, Change in
,(kN/m2) specimen height, = −
(cm) =
0 0.000 0.000 0.671
50 0.052 0.034 0.637
100 0.023 0.015 0.622
200 0.034 0.022 0.599
400 0.042 0.028 0.572
800 0.065 0.043 0.529
1600 0.099 0.065 0.464
3200 0.110 0.072 0.391

The results are drawn below

0.70

0.65

0.60

0.55
Vo id ratio, e

0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35

0.30
10 100 1000 10000

pressue, σ', (kN/m2)

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Part b.

Pressure, Change in Final height of specimen at the end of

,(kN/m2) specimen height, consolidation (cm)
(cm) = −
0 0.000 - =
2.540
50
100
0.052
0.023 - =
2.488
2.465
200 0.034 2.431
400 0.042 2.389
800 0.065 2.324
1600 0.099 2.225
3200 0.110 2.115

Part c

0.70

0.65

0.60

0.55
Void ratio, e

0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35
preconsolidation pressure
0.30
10 100 630 kN/m2 1000 10000

pressue, σ', (kN/m2)

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Shear Strength of Soil

The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area that the
soil mass can offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane inside it.
Engineers must understand the nature of shearing resistance in order to analyze
soil stability problems such as bearing capacity, slope stability, and lateral
pressure on earth-retaining structures.

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria

Mohr (1900) presented a theory for rupture in materials.
The relationship between normal stress and shear stress on a failure plane can
be expressed as
= ( )
where
=shear stress on the failure plane
( )=normal stress on the failure plane

For most soil mechanics problems, it is sufficient to approximate the shear stress
on the failure plane as a linear function of the normal stress (Coulomb, 1776).
This relation can be written as
= + tan
where
=cohesion
=angle of internal friction
The preceding equation is called the Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.

Shearing Strength
· The basic concept of shearing resistance and shearing strength can be
made clear by studying first the basic principles of friction between solid
bodies.
· Consider a prismatic block B resting on a plane surface MN as shown in Fig.
35. Block B is subjected to the force Pn which acts at right angles to the
surface MN, and the force Fa that acts tangentially to the plane.
· The normal force Pn remains constant whereas Fa gradually increases
from zero to a value which will produce sliding.

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· If the tangential force Fa is relatively small, block B will remain at rest, and
the applied horizontal force will be balanced by an equal and opposite
force Fr on the plane of contact. This resisting force is developed as a
result of roughness characteristics of the bottom of block B and plane
surface MN.
· The angle formed by the resultant R of the two forces Fr and Pn with the
normal to the plane MN is known as the angle of obliquity.
· If the applied horizontal force Fa is gradually increased, the resisting force
Fr will likewise increase, always being equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the applied force.
· Block B will start sliding along the plane when the force Fa reaches a value
which will increase the angle of obliquity to a certain maximum value. If
block B and plane surface MN are made of the same material, the angle
is equal to which is termed the angle of friction, and the value tan is
termed the coefficient of friction.
· The maximum shearing resistance which the materials are capable of
developing is called the shearing strength.
· If another experiment is conducted on the same block with a higher
normal load Pn the shearing force Fa will correspondingly be greater.
· A series of such experiments would show that the shearing force Fa is
proportional to the normal load Pn, that is
= tan
· If A is the overall contact area of block B on plane surface MN, the
relationship may be written as
shear strength, = =
or =

Fig.35 Basic concept of shearing resistance and strength.

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The Coulomb Equation

· The basic concept of friction as explained in the above section applies to
soils which are purely granular in character.
· Soils which are not purely granular exhibit an additional strength which is
due to the cohesion between the particles. The shearing strength s of such
soils is separated into two components, one due to the cohesion between
the soil particles and the other due to the friction between them.
· The fundamental shear strength equation proposed by Coulomb is
= + tan
This equation expresses the assumption that the cohesion is independent
of the normal pressure acting on the plane of failure. At zero normal
pressure, the shear strength of the soil is expressed as
=

The significance of the failure envelope can be explained as follows:

1. If the normal stress and the shear stress on a plane in a soil mass are such
that they plot as point A in Figure 36, then shear failure will not occur
along that plane.
2. If the normal stress and the shear stress on a plane plot as point B (which
falls on the failure envelope), then shear failure will occur along that plane.
3. A state of stress on a plane represented by point C cannot exist because it
plots above the failure envelope, and shear failure in a soil would have
occurred already.

Figure 36 Illustration of Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria

In saturated soil, the total normal stress at a point is the sum of the effective
stress and the pore water pressure, or
= +
The effective stress, ,is carried by the soil solids. So, to apply it to soil
mechanics, we need to rewrite it as
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= + ( − ) tan = + tan
where
= effective cohesion
=effective angle of friction

The value of for

sand and inorganic silt =0
normally consolidated clays =0
Overconsolidated clays >0
Typical values of for some granular soils are given in Table 7.

Table 7 Relationship between Relative Density and Angle of Friction of

Cohesionless Soils

Laboratory Determination of Shear Strength Parameters

The shear strength parameters of a soil are determined in the laboratory
primarily with two types of tests:
1. Direct shear test.
2. Triaxial test.
3. Unconfined compression test
The procedures for conducting each of these tests are explained in some detail in
the following sections.

Direct Shear Test

· This is the oldest and simplest form of shear test arrangement.
· A diagram of the direct shear test apparatus is shown in Figure 38.

Figure 37 Main parts of direct shear box

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Figure 38 Diagram of direct shear test arrangement

Figure 39 Direct shear device

The test equipment consists of a metal shear box in which the soil specimen is
placed. The soil specimens may be square or circular. The size of the specimens

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generally used is about 20 to 25 cm2 across and 25 to 30 mm high. The box is

split horizontally into halves.
Normal force on the specimen is applied from the top of the shear box. The
normal stress on the specimens can be as great as 1000 kN/m2.
Shear force is applied by moving one half of the box relative to the other to cause
failure in the soil specimen.
After the application of each incremental load, the shear displacement of the top
half of the box is measured by a horizontal dial gauge
Figure 40 shows such a plot for tests on a dry sand

Figure 40 Determination of shear strength parameters for a dry sand using the
results of direct shear tests

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Example S.1

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Triaxial Shear Test

The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for
determining the shear strength parameters. It is widely used for both research
and conventional testing.

A cylindrical soil specimen, see Figure 41 is subjected to stresses from three

directions, , , and . The stresses in the horizontal direction, , and , are
applied through liquid (usually water) and thus = and they remain
constant during the experiment. The vertical stress, , is applied through a
loading ram, and it is increased gradually until failure occurs.

Figure 41 cylindrical soil specimen

A diagram of the triaxial test layout is shown in Figure 42.

Figure 42 Diagram of triaxial test equipment

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Figure 43 Triaxial test device

· In the triaxial shear test, a soil specimen about 36 mm in diameter and 76

mm long is generally used.
· The specimen is encased by a thin rubber membrane and placed inside a
plastic cylindrical chamber that is usually filled with water or glycerine.
· The specimen is subjected to a confining pressure by compression of the
fluid in the chamber.
· To cause shear failure in the specimen, axial stress is applied through a
vertical loading ram (sometimes called deviator stress).
· Connections to measure drainage into or out of the specimen, or to
measure pressure in the pore water (as per the test conditions), are also
provided.

Three standard types of triaxial tests are generally conducted:

1. Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)
2. Consolidated-undrained test (CU test)
3. Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

The general procedures and implications for each of the tests in saturated soils
are described in the following sections.

Consolidated-Drained Test
In the consolidated-drained test, the specimen is first subjected to an all-around
confining pressure, , by compression of the chamber fluid (Figure 44). As
confining pressure is applied, the pore water pressure of the specimen increases
by . This increase in the pore water pressure can be expressed in the form of a
nondimensional parameter:
= (11.15)

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where = Skempton’s pore pressure parameter.

For saturated soft soils, is approximately equal to 1; however, for saturated
stiff soils, the magnitude of can be less than 1.
When the connection to drainage is kept open, dissipation of the excess pore
water pressure, and thus consolidation, will occur. With time, will become
equal to 0.
Then the deviator stress, Δ on the specimen is increased at a very slow rate
(Figure 44b). The drainage connection is kept open, and the slow rate of deviator
stress application allows complete dissipation of any pore water pressure that
developed as a result (Δ = 0).

Figure 44 Consolidated-drained triaxial test: (a) consolidation stage (b) specimen

under chamber confining pressure; (c) deviator stress application

Since the pore water pressure developed during the test is completely dissipated,
we have
total and effective confining stress = =
and
total and effective axial stress at failure= = = + ( )
In a triaxial test, is the major principal effective stress at failure and is the
minor principal effective stress at failure.

A consolidated-drained triaxial test on a clayey soil may take several days to

complete. The time is needed to apply deviator stress at a very slow rate to
ensure full drainage from the soil specimen. For that reason, the CD type of
triaxial test is not commonly used.

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Failure plane
In triaxial test the soil fails at the weakest plane.
The inclination of the failure plane with the with the major principal plane is
determined as
= 45 +
2
The normal and shear stresses at the failure plane are

Plane of maximum shear stress

The plane of maximum shear stress is not the failure plane, but it is a plane that
inclined 45° with the major principal plane ( = 45°).
Stresses at any plane
Stresses at a plane makes angel with the plane of major principal plane is
calculated as
+ −
= + cos 2
2 2
and
−
= sin 2
2
Relationship among , , ,
In terms of total stresses, it can be expressed as

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= tan 45 + + 2 tan 45 +
2 2
In terms of effective stresses, it can be expressed as
= tan 45 + + 2 tan 45 +
2 2

Example S.2
For a normally consolidated clay, these are the results of a drained triaxial test:
chamber confining pressure=112 kN/m2
deviator stress at failure=175 kN/m2
Find
a. the angle of friction,
b. Determine the angle that the failure plane makes with the major
principal plane.

Solution
The failure envelope equation is
= + tan
For normally consolidated soil, = 0. Thus,
= tan
For the triaxial test, the effective major and minor principal stresses at failure are
= = + (Δ ) = 112 + 175 = 287 /
and
= = 112 /

Fig. 45
Part a.
The Mohr’s circle and the failure envelope are shown in Figure 45, from which
we get

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−
sin = 2
+
2
− 287 − 112
→ sin = = = 0.438
+ 287 + 112

= 26°
Part b
= 45 +
2
26
→ = 45 + = 58°
2
Example S.3
Refer to Example S.2.
a. Find the normal stress, , and the shear stress, , on the failure plane.
b. Determine the effective normal stress on the plane of maximum shear stress.

Solution
Part a.
+ −
(on the failure plane) = + cos 2
2 2
and
−
= sin 2
2
Substituting the values of = 287 / , = 112 / , and = 58° into
the preceding equations, we get
287 + 112 287 − 112
= + cos(2 × 58) = 161 /
2 2
and
287 − 112
= sin(2 × 58) = 78.6 /
2
Part b.
The maximum shear stress will occur on the plane with = 45°.
287 + 112 287 − 112
= + cos(2 × 45) = 199.5 /
2 2
and
287 − 112
= sin(2 × 45) = 87.5 /
2

Consolidated-Undrained Test
· The consolidated-undrained test is the most common type of triaxial test.
· In this test, the saturated soil specimen is first consolidated by an all-
round chamber fluid pressure, , that results in drainage.
· After the pore water pressure generated by the application of confining
pressure is completely dissipated ( = 0), the deviator stress, Δ , on the
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specimen is increased to cause shear failure. During this phase of the test,
the drainage line from the specimen is kept closed.
· Since drainage is not permitted, the pore water pressure, Δ , will
increase.
· During the test, measurements of Δ and Δ are made.
· The increase in the pore water pressure, Δ , can be expressed in a
nondimensional form as
Δ (11.17)
̅=
Δ
where ̅ Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (Skempton, 1954).

Unlike in the consolidated-drained test, the total and effective principal stresses
are not the same in the consolidated-undrained test. Since the pore water
pressure at failure is measured in this test, the principal stresses may be
analyzed as follows:
• Major principal stress at failure (total):
= + (∆ )
• Major principal stress at failure (effective):
= − (∆ )

• Minor principal stress at failure (total):

• Minor principal stress at failure (effective):

= − (∆ )
Where (∆ ) = pore water pressure at failure

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Example S.4
A consolidated-undrained test on a normally consolidated clay yielded the
following results:

= 84 /
Deviator stress, (Δ ) = 63.7 /
Pore pressure, (Δ ) = 47.6 /

Calculate the consolidated-undrained friction angle and the drained friction angle.

Solution
Refer to Fig. 46
= 84 /
= + (Δ ) = 84 + 63.7 = 147.7 /

From Eq.(11.9) [considering total stresses]

= tan 45 + + 2 tan 45 +
2 2
For normally consolidated soils, = 0, thus
= tan 45 +
2
147.7 = 84 tan 45 +
2
⇒ = 16°

Fig. 46

Again,
= − (∆ ) = 84 − 47.6 = 36.4 /

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= − (∆ ) = 147.7 − 47.6 = 100.1 /

From Eq.(11.9),
= tan 45 + + 2 tan 45 +
2 2
[ = 0 for normally consolidated soils]
= tan 45 +
2
100.1 = 36.4 tan 45 +
2
⇒ = 27.8°

Unconsolidated-Undrained Test
· In unconsolidated-undrained tests, drainage from the soil specimen is not
permitted during the application of chamber pressure, .
· The test specimen is sheared to failure by the application of deviator stress,
Δ , with no drainage allowed.
· Since drainage is not allowed at any stage, the test can be performed very
quickly.
· Because of the application of chamber confining pressure, , the pore
water pressure in the soil specimen will increase by . There will be a
further increase in the pore water pressure, Δ
because of the deviator stress application. Hence, the total pore water pressure, ,
in the specimen at any stage of deviator stress application can be given as
= +Δ

From Eqs. (11.15) and (11.17), we have = and Δ = ̅Δ , so

= + ̅Δ = + ̅( − ) (11.22)

The unconsolidated-undrained test is usually conducted on clay specimens and

depends on a very important strength concept for saturated cohesive soils. The
added axial stress at failure (∆ ) , is practically the same regardless of the
chamber confining pressure. This result is shown in Figure 47. The failure
envelope for the total stress Mohr’s circles becomes a horizontal line and hence is
called a = 0 condition, and
=
where is the undrained shear strength and is equal to the radius of the Mohr’s
circles.

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Figure 47 Total stress Mohr’s circles and failure envelope ( = ) obtained from
unconsolidated-undrained triaxial tests

Unconfined Compression Test on Saturated Clay

The unconfined compression test is a special type of unconsolidated-undrained
test that is commonly used for clay specimens. In this test, the confining pressure
is 0.
An axial load is rapidly applied to the specimen to cause failure. At failure, the
total minor principal stress is 0 and the total major principal stress is (Figure
48).
Since the undrained shear strength is independent of the confining pressure, we
have
= = =
2 2
where is the unconfined compression strength.

s
Figure 48 Unconfined compression test

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Table 8 gives the approximate consistencies of clays based on their unconfined

compression strengths. A photograph of unconfined compression test equipment
is shown in Figure 49.

Figure 49 Unconfined compression test equipment

Table 8 General relationship of consistency and unconfined compression strength

of clays

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Introduction
Retaining structures such as retaining walls and basement walls support slopes
of earth masses. Proper design and construction of these structures require a
thorough knowledge of the lateral forces that act between the retaining
structures and the soil masses being retained.

At-Rest, Active, and Passive Pressures

Consider a mass of soil shown in Figure. 50a. The mass is bounded by a
frictionless wall of height AB. A soil element located at a depth is subjected to a
vertical effective pressure , and a horizontal effective pressure, . There are
no shear stresses on the vertical and horizontal planes of the soil element. Let us
define the ratio of to as a nondimensional quantity , or

Now, three possible cases may arise concerning the retaining wall:
Case 1 If the wall AB is static—that is, if it does not move either to the right or to
the left of its initial position—the soil mass will be in a state of static equilibrium.
In that case, is referred to as the at-rest earth pressure

where = at-rest earth pressure coefficient.

Case 2 If the frictionless wall rotates sufficiently about its bottom to a position of
(Figure 50b). At this time, the horizontal effective stress, will be referred to
as active pressure, = .

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where = active earth pressure coefficient.

Case 3 If the frictionless wall rotates sufficiently about its bottom to a position
(Figure 50c). At this time, the horizontal effective stress, will be referred to
as passive pressure, = .

where = passive earth pressure coefficient.

Figure 50 Definition of at-rest, active, and passive pressures (Note: Wall AB is

frictionless)

Figure 51 shows the nature of variation of lateral earth pressure with the wall tilt.
Typical values of ∆ / (∆ = in Figure 50) and ∆ / (∆ = in
Figure 50) for attaining the active and passive states in various soils are given in
Table 12.1

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Figure 51 Variation of the magnitude of lateral earth pressure with wall tilt

Table 9 Typical Values of ∆ / and ∆ /

Soil Type ∆ / ∆ /
Loose sand 0.001- 0.002 0.01
Dense sand 0.0005-0.001 0.005
Soft clay 0.02 0.04
Stiff clay 0.01 0.02

Earth Pressure At-Rest

Vertical effective stress= =

Horizontal effective stress= =
=

For coarse-grained soils, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be estimated
by using the empirical relationship (Jaky, 1944)

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= 1 − sin

where drained friction angle.

For overconsolidated soils, the value of can be computed as

= (1 − sin )( )

where = overconsolidated ratio

,
=
,

For fine-grained soils, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be estimated
by using the empirical relationship

(%)
= 0.44 + 0.42
100
For overconsolidated clays, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be
approximated as

( ) = ( )√

Figure 52 shows the distribution of

lateral earth pressure at rest on a wall
of height retaining a dry soil having
a unit weight of . The total force per
unit length of the wall, , is equal to
the area of the pressure diagram, so
1
=
2

Figure 52 Distribution of lateral earth

pressure at-rest on a wall

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Earth Pressure At-Rest for Partially Submerged Soil

Effective vertical pressure = +

where = − = effective unit weight of soil. so, the effective lateral

pressure at rest is

= = [ + ]

The variation of with depth is shown by CEGB in Figure 53a. The lateral
pressure from pore water is

The variation of with depth is shown in figure 53b

Figure 53 Distribution of earth pressure at rest for partially submerged soil

Hence, the total lateral pressure from earth and water at any depth ≥ is
equal to

= +

= [ + ]+

The force per unit length of the wall can be found from the sum of the areas of the
pressure diagram in figures 53a and 53b and is equal to figure 53c.

= + + ( + )

Area Area Areas

ACE CEFB EFG and IJK

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Example

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