Effect of wind on structure

Wind produces three different types of effects on structure: static, dynamic and aerodynamic. The
response of load depends on type of structure. When the structure deflects in response to wind load
then the dynamic and aerodynamic effects should be analysed in addition to static effect. Sound
knowledge of fluid and structural mechanics helps in understanding of details of interaction
between wind flow and civil engineering structures or buildings.
Flexible slender structures and structural elements are subjected to wind induced along and across
the direction of wind. When considering the response of a tall building to wind gusts, both along-
wind and across-wind responses must be considered. These arise from different the former being
primarily due to buffeting effects caused by turbulence; the latter being primarily due to alternate-
side vortex shedding. The cross-wind response may be of particular importance because it is likely
to exceed along-wind accelerations if the building is slender about both axes.
Any building or structure which does not satisfy either of the above two criteria shall be examined
for dynamic effects of wind:
a) Buildings and closed structures with a height to minimum lateral dimension ratio of more than
about 5.0.
b) Buildings and closed structures whose natural frequency in the first mode is less than 1 Hz.

Wind induced oscillation

There are three forms of wind induced motion as follows:-

a) Galloping - Galloping is transverse oscillations of some structures due to the development of

aerodynamic forces which are in phase with the motion. It is characterized by the
progressively increasing amplitude of transverse vibration with increase of wind speed. Non
circular cross section are more susceptible to this type of oscillation
b) Flutter - Flutter is unstable oscillatory motion of a structure due to coupling between
aerodynamic force and elastic deformation of the structure. Perhaps the’ most common form
is oscillatory motion due to combined bending and torsion. Long span suspension bridge
decks or any member of a structure with large values of d/t ( where d is the depth of a
structure or structural member parallel to wind stream and t is the least lateral dimension of
a member ) are prone to low speed flutter.
c) Ovalling - This walled structures with open ends at one or both ends such as oil storage
tanks, and natural draught cooling towers in which the ratio of the diameter of minimum
lateral dimension to the wall thickness is of the order of 100 or more, are prone to ovalling
oscillations. These oscillations are characterized by periodic radial deformation of the
hollow structure.

The dynamic component which essentially causes the oscillation of structure is generated due to
three reasons:-

1) Gust
The wind velocities at any location vary considerably with time. In addition to a steady wind there
are effects of gusts which last for few seconds and yield a more realistic assessment of wind load. In
practice the peak gust are likely to be observed over an average time of 3.5 to 15 secs depending on
location and size of structure. The intensity of gusts is also related to the duration of gusts that
affects structures. Larger structure will be affected more by gust of larger duration and thus
subjected to smaller pressure compared to smaller structure. The gust effect factor accounts for
additional dynamic amplification of loading in the along-wind direction due to wind turbulence and
structure interaction. It does not include allowances for across-wind loading effects, vortex
shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter, or dynamic torsional effects. Buildings susceptible
to these effects should be designed using wind tunnel results.

This factor accounts for the increase in the mean wind loads due to the following factors:
• Random wind gusts acting for short durations over entire or part of structure.
• Fluctuating pressures induced in the wake of a structure, including vortex shedding forces.
• Fluctuating forces induced by the motion of a structure.

2) Vortex Shedding
When wind acts on a bluff body forces and moments in three mutually perpendicular direction are
generated- out of which three are translation and three rotation. For civil and structures the force
and moment corresponding to the vertical axis (lift and yawing moment) are of little significance.
Therefore the flow of wind is considered two-dimensional consisting of along wind response and
transverse wind response.

FIGURE 1

Along wind response refer to drag forces, and transverse wind is the term used to describe
crosswind. The crosswind response causing motion in a plane perpendicular to the direction of wind
typically dominates over the along-wind response for tall buildings.

Consider a prismatic building subjected to a smooth wind flow. The originally parallel upwind
streamlines are displaced on either side of the building due to boundary layer separation. This
results in spiral vortices being shed periodically from the sides into the downstream flow of wind
creating a low pressure zone due to shedding of eddies called the wake. When the vortices are shed
across wind component are generated in the transverse direction. At low wind speeds, since the
shedding occurs at the same instant on either side of the building, there is no tendency for the
building to vibrate in the transverse direction. It is therefore subject to along-wind oscillations
parallel to the wind direction. At higher speeds, the vortices are shed alternately, first from one and
then from the other side. When this occurs, there is an force in the along-wind direction as before,
but in addition, there is an force in the transverse direction. This type of shedding, which gives rise
to structural vibrations in the flow direction as well as in the transverse direction, is called vortex
shedding. The frequency of shedding depends mainly on shape and size of the structure, velocity of
flow and to a lesser degree on surface roughness turbulence of flow.
 FIGURE 2 :VORTEX SHEDDING PHENOMENON

For slender structure, the shedding frequency ή shall be determined by the following formula:
ή =SVd / b
where
S = Strouhal number,
Vd = design wind velocity, and
b = breadth of a structure or structural members in the horizontal plane normal to the wind direction

a) Circular Structures - For structures circular in cross-section:

S = 0.20 for bVz not greater than 7,
and
= 0.25 for bVz, greater than 7.

b) Rectangular Structures - For structures of rectangular cross-section:

S = 0.15 for all values of b Vz
Where Vz = Design wind speed

3) Buffeting
A downwind structure could oscillate due to vortex sheeding of adjacent structure.
Different types of Loads on a structure
Different types of loads can cause stress, displacement, deformation on a structure; which results in
structural problems and even structural failure. Determining the total load acting on a structure is very
important and complex.

The structure should be designed in a way that it should be enough strong to bear any type of load at
any time that they are likely to face during their lifecycle.

So, the estimation of total load act on the structure or the total load that is likely to be acted on the
structure in future is accurately calculated and same should be designed.

Indian standard code IS: 875–1987 and American Standard Code ASCE 7: Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures deals with various design loads for structures.

The different types of loads acting on a structure are broadly classified into following two types
1. Vertical loads
2. Horizontal loads

Vertical Loads:

Vertical loads are further classified into following types:

Dead Loads:

These loads are permanent loads which are carried to the structure throughout their lifespan. Dead
loads are also called as stationary loads. These loads occur mainly due to the self-weight of the
structural members, fittings, fixed partitions, fixed equipment, etc.

Live Loads:

As the name itself resembling that these type of loads are real-time loads. Live loads are also called
as imposed or sudden loads. Live loads changes with respect to time. This type of loading may
come and go. For example, At one moment the room may be empty hence the live load is zero. If
the same room is packed with the people, then the live load intensity will vary considerably. The
live load includes the weight of furniture, people occupying the floor, etc.

As the dead load is individually calculated to each and every member of the building whereas for live load it
is calculated on the basis of expected sudden loads on the building in future

Snow loads:

This type of loads is considered only on the structure which receives snowfall during monsoon.
Snow loads are calculated by the projections made by snow at different parts of the structure, The
amount of snow load depends on the height of building, size & shape of the roof, the location of
building whether it’s on the slope or not, the frequency of snow etc. The more details about snow
loads are clearly mentioned IS 875 (part 4) – 1987.
Horizontal Loads:
Wind loads:

This types of loads are considered in design if the height of the building is more than 15m. Wind
loads are occurred due to the horizontal load caused by the wind. As an increase in using lighter
materials in the construction, wind load for a building should be considered. The structure should be
strong enough with the heavy dead weights and anchored to the ground to resist this wind load. If
not, the building may blow away. Wind load acts horizontally towards roofs, walls and create

Earthquake loads:

These type of loads causes movement of the foundation of structures. Earthquake forces are internal
forces that developed on the structure because of ground movements.

Three mutually perpendicular forces act on the structure during an earthquake, two horizontal forces
which acts in opposite direction and one vertical force due to the weight of the structure. As vertical
force doesn’t affect much during earthquake whereas two opposite horizontal forces results in
movement of the building during an earthquake. These two horizontal direction forces are
considered in the design.

Some other types of loads:

Some other types of forces or loads that act on the structure which are taken into account in case
they are liable to affect materially the safety or serviceability of structure:

 Foundation movement (IS 1904)

 Erection load (IS 875- Part2)
 Vibration, Fatigue
 Soil and fluid pressures (IS 875- Part5)
 Stress concentration effect due to point of application of load
Flat Slab Design as per IS 456 Pdf -- Indian Code
Recommendations (IS: 456 2000)
Indian Code Recommendations (IS: 456 2000)
General.

The following definitions shall apply

1. Column strip.

Column strip means a design strip having a width of 0.25L but not greater than 0.25 4 on each side
of the column centre line, where span in the direction moments are being determined, measured
centre to centre of support and 1 is the span transverse to measured centre to centre of supports.

2. Middle strip.

Middle strip means a design strip bounded on each of its opposite sides by the column strip.

3. Panel.

Panel means that part of the slab bounded on each of its four sides by the center-line of a column or
centre lines of adjacent spans.

(b) Proportioning

1. Thickness of Flat slab.

The thickness of flat slab shall be generally controlled by considerations of span to effective depth
ratios ,For slabs with drops conforming to clause (b-2), span to effective depth ratios shall be
applied directly: otherwise the span to effective depth ratios obtained in accordance with provisions
shall be multiplied by 0.9. For this purpose, the longer span shall be considered.
The minimum thickness of Flat slab shall be 125 mm.

2. Drops.

The drops when provided shall be rectangular in plan, and have a length in each direction not less
than one third of the panel length in the direction. For exterior panels, the width of drops at right
angles to the non-continuous edge and measured from entre line of the columns shall be equal one
half the width of drop for interior panels.

3. Column heads.

head which lies within the largest circular cone or pyramid that has a vertex angle of 90° and can be
included entirely within the outlines of the column and the column head, shall be considered for
design purposes.

(c) Determination of bending moment

1. Methods of analysis and design.

It shall be permissible to design the slab system by one of the following design methods.

1. The direct design method.

2. The equivalent frame method.

2. Bending moments

Bending moments in panels with marginal beams or walls. Where the slab is supported by a
marginal beam with depth greater than 1.5 times the thickness of the slab. When column heads are
provided, that portion of a column or by a wall, then

1. The total load to be carried by the beam or wall shall comprise those loads directly on the wall or
beam plus a uniformly distributed load equal to one-quarter of the total load on the slab.
2. The bending moments on the half column strip adjacent to the beam or wall shall be one-quarter of
the bending moments for the first interior column strip.

3. Transfer of bending moments to columns.

when unbalanced gravity load, wind, earthquake, or other lateral loads cause transfer of bending
moment between slab and column, the flexural stresses shall be investigated using a fraction, α of
the moment given by

A slab width between lines that are one and one-half slab or drop panel thickness, and 1.5 D, on each side
of the column or capital may be considered effective, D being the size of the column. Concentration of
reinforcement over column head by closer spacing or additional reinforcement may be used to resist the
moment on this section
Design of flat slabs by IS: 456
For an interior panel of a flat slab with dimensions 6.6 x 5.6 m and super imposed load 7.75 KN /𝑚2 .

The term flat slab means a reinforced concrete slab with or without drops, supported generally without
beams, by columns with or without flared column heads. A flat slab may be solid slab or may have
recesses formed on the soffit so that the soffit comprises a series of ribs in two directions.
The recesses may be formed by removable or permanent filler blocks.

Components of flat slab design:

a) Column strip:
Column strip means a design strip having a width of 0.25 I,, but not greater than 0.25 1, on each side of
the column centre-line, where I, is the span in the direction moments are being determined, measured
centre to centre of supports and 1, is the -span transverse to 1,, measured centre to centre of supports.
b) Middle strip:
Middle strip means a design strip bounded on each of its opposite sides by the column strip.
c) Panel:
Panel means that part of a slab bounde d on-each of its four sides by the centre -line of a Column or
centre-lines of adjacent-spans.

Division into column and middle strip along:

Longer span Shorter span
L1 =6.6 m , L2 =5.6 m L1 =5.6 m , L2 =6.6 m

( i ) column strip ( i ) column strip

= 0.25 L2 = 1.4 m = 0.25 L2 = 1.65 m
But not greater than 0.25 L1 = 1.65 m But not greater than 0.25 L1 = 1.4 m

(ii) Middle strip (ii) Middle strip

= 5.6 – (1.4+1.4) = 2.8 m = 6.6 – (1.4+1.4) = 3.8 m

d) The drops when provided shall be rectangular in plan, and have a length in each direction not
less than one- third of the panel length in that direction. For exterior panels, the width of drops at
right angles to the non- continuous edge and measured from the centre -line of the columns shall
be equal to one –half the width of drop for interior panels.

Since the span is large it is desirable to provide drop.

Drop dimensions along:

Hence provide a drop of size 2.2 x 2.2 m i.e. in column strip width.

e) column head :
Where column heads are provided, that portion of a column head which lies within the largest right
circular cone or pyramid that has a vertex angle of 90”and can be included entirely within the outlines of
the column and the column head, shall be considered for design purposes. (see Fig. 2).

Fig 2:
Column head dimension along:

Adopting the diameter of column head = 1.30 m =1300 mm

f) Depth of flat slab:

The thickness of the flat slab up to spans of 10 m shall be generally controlled by considerations of span
( L ) to effective depth ( d ) ratios given as below:

Cantilever 7; simply supported 20; Continuous 26

For slabs with drops, span to effective depth ratios given above shall be applied directly; otherwise the
span to effective depth ratios in accordance with above shall be multiplied by 0.9. For this purpose, the
longer span of the panel shall be considered. The minimum thickness of slab shall be 125 mm.

Depth of flat slab:

Considering the flat slab as a continuous slab over a span not exceeding 10 m.

Depth considering along:

Taking effective depth of 25mm

Overall depth D = 260 +25 = 285 mm 125 mm (minimum slab thickness as per IS: 456)

It is safe to provide depth of 285 mm.

g) Estimation of load acting on the slab:
Dead load acting on the slab = 0.285 x 25 = 6.25 KN /m2 = wd1
Floor finishes etc. load on slab = 1.45 KN /m2= wd1
Live load on slab = 7.75 KN /m2= wl
Total dead load = wd1 +wd2 =7.7 KN /m2 = wd

The design live load shall not exceed three times the design dead load.
Check:

Total design load = wd + wl=15.45 KN/m2

h) Total Design Moment for a Span
The absolute sum of the positive and average and is given by negative bending moments in each
direction shall be taken as:

Circular supports shall be treated as square supports having the same area.
Equivalent side of the column head having the same area:
Total design load along:

The absolute sum of –ve and +ve moment in a panel along:

(i) Negative and Positive Design Moments :

The negative design moment shall be at the fac e of rectangular supports, circular supports being treated
as square supports having the same 31.4.5.1 Columns built integrally with the slab system area. Shall be
designed to-resist moments arising from loads.
In an interior span, the total design moment 0 M shall be distributed in the following proportions:
Negative design moment 0.65
Positive design moment 0.35
In an end span, the total design moment 0 M shall be distributed in the following proportions:

αc Is the ratio of flexural stiffness of the exterior columns to the flexural stiffness of the slab at a joint
taken in the direction moments are being determined and is given by:

Kc =sum of the flexural stiffness of the columns meeting at the joint.

Ks =flexural stiffness of the slab, expressed as moment per unit rotation

It shall be permissible to modify these design moments by up to 10 percent, so long as the total design
moment 0 M for the panel in the direction considered is not less than that required by:

The negative moment section shall be designed to resist the larger of the two interior negative design
moments determined for the spans framing into a common support unless an analysis is made to
distribute the unbalanced moment in accordance with the stiffness of the adjoining parts.

Column strip :
Negative moment at an interior support: At an interior support, the column strip shall be designed to
resist 75 percent of the total negative moment in the panel at that support.

Negative moment at an exterior support:

a) At an exterior support, the column strip shall be designed to resist the total negative moment in the
panel at that support.
b) Where the exterior support consists of a column or a wall extending for a distance equal to or greater
than three-quarters of the value of 2 l . The length of span transverse t o the direction moments are being
determined, the exterior negative moment shall be considered to be uniformly distributed across the
length l2.

Positive moment for each span: For each span, the column strip shall be designed to resist 60 percent of
the total positive moment in the panel.

Moments in the middle strip:

a) That portion of-the design moment not resisted by the column strip shall be assigned to the
adjacent middle strips.
b) Each middle strip shall be proportioned to resist the sum of the moments assigned to its two half
middle strips. The middle strip adjacent and parallel to an edge supported by a wall shall be
proportioned, to resist twice the moment assigned to half the middle strip corresponding to the
first row of interior columns.

Stiffness calculation:
let the height of the floor = 4.0 m
clear height of the column = height of floor –depth of drop – thickness of slab –thickness of
head = 4000 – 140 – 285 – 300 = 3275 mm
Effective height of column = 0.8 x 3275 = 2620 mm

(Assuming one end hinged and other end fixed)

stiffness coefficient
Longer span

Hence correction for pattern of loading in the direction of longer span is not required.

Shorter span

Hence the correction for pattern loading in the direction of short span is not required.
Distrubution of bending moment across the panel width
It is an exterior panel.

Longer span

column strip

Middle strip
Short span

column strip

Middle strip

j) Effective depth of the slab

Thickness of the slab, from consideration of maximum positive moment anywhere in the slab.

Maximum +ve BM occurs in the column strip (long span) = 90.91 KNm

factored moment = 1.50 x 90.91 = 136.36 KNm
Using 12 mm Φ (diameter) main bars.
l) Shear in Flat Slab

The critical section for shear shall be at a distance d/2 from the periphery of the column/capital/ drop
panel, perpendicular to the plane of the slab where d is the effective depth of the section (Fig. 2). The
shape in plan is geometrically similar to the support immediately below the slab.

m) check for shear in drop

n) Reinforcement details