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Advanced Transmission Line Theory
Advanced Transmission Line Theory
Advanced Transmission
Line Theory
http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/ADS/ads.htm
The information in this work has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable.
The author does not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information
presented herein, and shall not be responsible for any errors, omissions or damages
as a result of the use of this information.
Preface
• Transmission lines and waveguides are the most important elements in
microwave or RF circuits and systems.
• Transmission lines and waveguides are used to connect various
components together to form a complex circuit. This is similar to low
frequency circuit, where we use wires or copper track to connect the
various components in an electronic circuit.
• In addition, you will see later that many types of microwave
components are fabricated from short sections of transmission lines or
waveguides.
• For these reasons, a lot of emphasis is placed on understanding the
behavior of electromagnetic fields in transmission lines and
waveguides.
Transmission line
1
References
• [1] R. E. Collin, “Foundation for microwave engineering”, 2nd edition,
1992, McGraw-Hill. A very advanced and in-depth book on microwave
engineering. Difficult to read but the information is
very comprehensive. A classic work. Recommended.
• [3] S. Ramo, J.R. Whinnery, T.D. Van Duzer, “Field and waves in
communication electronics” 3rd edition, 1993 John-Wiley & Sons.
Good coverage of EM theory with emphasis on
applications.
References Cont...
• [5] F. Kung, “Modeling of high-speed printed circuit board.” Master
degree dissertation, 1997, University Malaya.
http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/Master/mthesis.htm
• [6] F. Kung unpublished notes and works.
2
1.0 Review of
Electromagnetic (EM) Fields
3
Electric and Magnetic Fields (2)
• E fields, by convention is directed from conductor with
E fields higher potential to conductor with less potential.
Conductor • Direction indicates force experienced by a small test charge
according to Coulomb’s Force Law.
+
+ • Density of the field lines corresponds to strength of the field.
++
q
+ +
++
Force on a test charge q
F= 1 ⋅ Qq r)
Conductor 4πε o r 2
- -
-
- Conductor
-
H fields +I
• H fields, by convention is directed according
to the right-hand rule. Conductor
• Direction indicates force experienced by a small
test current according to Lorentz’s Force Law. -I
( )
F = q v× B
4
Maxwell Equations (Linear Medium) -
Time-Domain Form (2)
• Maxwell Equations as shown are actually a collection of 4 partial
differential equations (PDE) that describe the physical relationship
between electromagnetic (EM) fields, current and electric charge.
• The Del operator is a shorthand for three-dimensional (3D)
differentiation:
∇ = ∂ xˆ + ∂ yˆ + ∂ zˆ (∂x ∂y ∂z
)
• For instance consider the 1st and 3rd Maxwell Equations:
Curl
xˆ yˆ zˆ
= ∂yz − ∂zy xˆ + ∂zx − ∂xz yˆ + ∂xy − ∂yx zˆ
~ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂E ∂E ∂E ∂E ∂E ∂E
∇ × E = ∂x ∂y ∂z
Ex Ey Ez Gradient
) )
= − ∂∂t (Bx x + B y yˆ + Bz zˆ ) ∇F = ∂F x + ∂F yˆ + ∂F z
∂x ∂y ∂z
~ ∂E ∂E ∂E ρ To truly understands this subject, and also
∇ ⋅ E = ∂xx + ∂yy + ∂zz = RF/Microwave circuit design, one needs
ε to have a strong grasp of Electromagnetism (EM).
Divergence Read references [1], [3] or any good book on EM.
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 9
f (ω (t o + ∆ t ) − β ( z o + ∆ z ))
∆z = f (k + ω ∆ t − β ∆ z ) These 2 terms
must cancel off
z i.e. ∆z positive
to+∆t zo+∆z
5
Extra: Wave Function and Phasor (2)
• An example: v( z , t ) = Vo cos(2πft − β z )
f = 1.0MHz , β = 1 A sinusoidal wave
v(z,t)
6
Extra: Wave Function and Phasor (4)
• Wave function and phasor notation is not only applicable to quantities
like voltage, current or charge. It is also applied to vector quantities like
E and H fields.
• For instance for sinusoidal E field traveling in +z direction:
Propogating function
r+
E (x, y , z , t ) = e x ( x, y )cos(ωt − β z )xˆ + e y ( x, y )cos(ωt − β z ) yˆ + e z ( x, y )cos(ωt − βz )zˆ
( ) { r
= e x xˆ + e y yˆ + e z zˆ cos(ωt − β z ) = Re Eo+ e − jβ z e jωt } Pattern function
Eo (x, y dependent)
• The phasor is given by:
r+
Ε (x, y, z ) = e x (x, y )e − jβ z xˆ + e y (x, y )e − jβz yˆ + e z (x, y )e − jβz zˆ
r
• Finally if we substitute the phasor form Eo+ e − jβz e jωt for E, H, J and ρ into
time-domain Maxwell’s Equations, we would obtain the Maxwell’s
Equations in time-harmonic form.
7
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Microwaves
AM
FM
MF HF
ELF VLF LF (MW) (SW)
VHF UHF SHF EHF IR
L S C X Ku K Ka mm
1 2 4 8 12 18 27 40 300
GHz GHz GHz GHz GHz GHz GHz GHz GHz
A Little Perspective…
~ ~ • Voltage/Potential
∇ × E = −µ ∂∂t H • Current Electronics &
~ ~ ~ • Inductance Microelectronics
∇ × B = µJ + µε ∂∂t E
• Capacitance
~ ρ • Resistance
∇⋅ E =
ε • Conductance
~ • Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
∇⋅ B = 0
(KVL) Information
+ • Kirchoff’s Current Law Computer
~ ∂ρ (KCL) & Telecommunication
∇ ⋅ J = − ∂t
Conservation of charge
Quantum Mechanics Chemistry
/Physics
8
2.0 Introduction –
Transmission Line
Concepts
Transverse
Interconnect Plane
9
Short Interconnect – Lumped Circuit
• For short interconnect, the moment the switch is closed, a voltage will
appear across RL as current flows through it. The effect is instantaneous.
• Voltage and current are due to electric charge movement along the
interconnect.
• Associated with the electric charges are static electromagnetic (EM) field in
the space surrounding the short interconnect.
• The short interconnect system can be modeled by lumped RLC circuit.
Electric charge Static EM field changes
y uniformly, i.e. when field at one
point increases, field at the
+
Vs RL other locations also increases.
x
-
z
Again we need to
stress that typically
the values of RLCG
R
EM field is static or quasi- are very small, at
low frequency their
static. L effect can be simply
C G
ignored.
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 19
Long interconnect: L
When there is an +
appreciable delay Vs RL
-
between input and
output Without the metal conductors, the EM
waves will disperse, i.e. radiated out
into space.
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 20
10
Long Interconnect (2)
y
• A simple animation… Positive charge Axial
H field Direction
x
E field z
Transverse
Plane
IL
+ VL
Vs
RL
-
L • Remember that
current is due to the
flow of free
electrons.
• E and H are also
sinusoidal.
• Behavior of E and
H are dictated by
Maxwell’s
Equations:
Electric field (E)
t
1/T = frequency
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 22
11
Long Interconnect (4)
y
L x
By analyzing Maxwell’s z
Equations or Wave
Equations (Appendix 1)
r
E + = ex ( x, y )e − jβz xˆ + e y ( x, y )e − jβz yˆ + ez ( x, y )e − jβz zˆ
r
= (et ( x, y ) + e z ( x, y )zˆ ) e − jβz
Electric field (E)
Propagating EM fields
Magnetic field (H)
r+ − jβz ˆ − jβz ˆ − jβz ˆ
H = hx ( x, y )e x + h y ( x, y )e y + h z ( x, y )e z
r
( )
= ht ( x, y ) + hz ( x, y )zˆ e − jβz
Snapshot of EM fields
at a certain instant in time
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee on the transverse plane 23
It(z,t) Loop 1
b
Vt(z,t)
r r
I t (z , t ) = ∫ H ⋅ dl a
Loop 1
br r
Vt ( z , t ) = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
a
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 24
12
Voltage and Current on Interconnect (2)
50Ω resistive z
voltage source GND plane
connected here
13
Demonstration - Electromagnetic Field
Propagation in Interconnect (2)
z
x
y
PCB dielectric:
FR4, εr = 4.4,
σ= 5.
Thickness
=1.0mm.
Magnitude
of Ez in
dielectric
0.75mm
Intensity
19.2mm
Scale 0.5mm
0.8mm
+
Vo = 3.0V
Vs tr = 50ps
Filename: tline1_XZplane.avi -
tHIGH = 100ps
Show simulation using CST Microwave
June 2008 Studio too © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 27
Magnitude
of Ez in
YZ plane
Volts
Filename: tline1_YZplane.avi
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 28
14
Definition of Transmission Line
• A transmission line is a long interconnect with 2 conductors – the signal
conductor and ground conductor for returning current.
• Multiconductor transmission line has more than 2 conductors, usually a
few signal conductors and one ground conductor.
• Transmission lines are a subset of a broader class of devices, known
as waveguide. Transmission line has at least 2 or more conductors,
while waveguides refer collectively to any structures that can allow EM
waves to propagate along the structure. This includes structures with
only 1 conductor or no conductor at all.
• Widely known waveguides include the rectangular and circular
waveguides for high power microwave system, and the optical fiber.
Waveguide is used for system requiring (1) high power, (2) very low
loss interconnect (3) high isolation between interconnects.
• Transmission line is more popular and is widely used in
PCB. From now on we will be concentrating on
transmission line, or Tline
June 2008
for short.
© 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 29
Dielectric
Conductor
15
Some Multi-conductor Transmission
Line Configurations
Dielectric
Conductor
Optical Fiber
Dielectric waveguide
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 32
16
Examples of Microstrip and Co-planar
Lines
Microstrip Co-planar
17
Demonstration – Long Interconnect
z
x 5.8GHz, 3.0V
y
19.2mm
Magnitude
of Ez in
YZ plane
Each frame is
displayed at
25psec interval
+50mA
Magnitude
of Ez in
YZ plane
• At any instant
in time the
current profile
is almost uniform
along the axial +50mA
direction.
• Interconnect Current
can be consideredprofile
lumped.
-50mA
Filename: tline1_YZplane_0_4GHz.avi
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 36
18
3.0 Propagation Modes
H fields
Transverse
plane
19
Non-transverse E and H Field Patterns
Field patterns does not lie in
E fields
the Transverse Plane.
Field contains
z-component
H fields
Field contains
z-component
20
Propagation Modes (2)
E E
H H
y
TM mode z
TEM mode
E E
H H
E field
H field
21
Appendix 1
Advanced Concepts – Field
Theory Solutions for
Transmission Lines
y
Maxwell Equations z
r r
∇ × E = − j ωµ H Wave Equations
r r r r r
∇ × H = J + j ωε E
Boundary ∇ 2 E + ko2 E = 0
r r
r ρ
∇⋅E = + conditions + ∇ 2H + ko2H = 0 (A.1)
ε
r
∇⋅H = 0 For instance tangential E field ko = ω εµ
component on PEC must be zero, In free space
continuity of E and H field components
across different dielectric material, etc.
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 44
22
Extra: Deriving the Hemholtz Wave
Equations From Maxwell Equations
r r
Performing curl operation on Faraday’s Law ∇ × E = − jωµH :
r r r r
(r r
) ( r
)
∇ × ∇ × E = ∇ ∇ ⋅ E − ∇ 2 E = − jωµ ∇ × H ( ) Note: use the well-known
vector calculus
r identity
r r
⇒ ∇ 2 E + ω 2 µεE = jωµJ + ∇ ερ () ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇ ∇ ⋅ A − ∇2 A( )
2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = + +
These are the sources for the E field ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
• To obtain a solution to the above system (a solution means a function that when
substituted into the ODE, will cause left and right hand side to be equal), many
approaches can be used (for instance see E. Kreyszig, “Advance engineering
mathematics”, 1998, John Wiley).
• One popular approach is the Trial-and-Error/substitution method, where we
guess a functional form for y(x) as follows: d 2y
y(x ) = e βx
dy
dx
= β e βx , 2 = β 2 e βx
• Substituting this into the ODE: dx
2 2 βx
(β +k e ) =0 That the trial-and-error method
works is attributed to the
⇒ β 2 + k2 = 0 Uniqueness Theorem for
linear ODE.
⇒ β = ± jk where j = − 1
• Since this is a 2nd order ODE, we need to introduce 2 unknown constants, A and
B, and a general solution is: − jkx
jkx
y (x ) = Ae + Be (1)
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 46
23
Obtaining the Expressions for E and H
(2)
• To find A and B, we need to use the boundary conditions.
y (0 ) = C1 ⇒ A + B = C1 (2a)
y (b ) = C2 ⇒ Ae jkb + Be − jkb = C2 (2b)
• Solving (2a) and (2b) for A and B:
(C1 − B )e jkb + Be− jkb = C2
C e jkb −C (3a)
⇒ B = 21j sin (kb2)
− jkb
Ce −C
A = C1 − B = 21 j sin (kb )2 (3b)
C e − jkb −C C e jkb −C
y (x ) = 21 j sin (kb )2 e jkx + 21j sin (kb2) e − jkx
(q.e.d.)
E x ( x, y, z ) = e x ( x, y )e − jβz or e x ( x, y )e jβz
June 2008
A function of x©and y
2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee
The exponent e !!! 48
24
Obtaining the Expressions for E and H
(4)
• Carrying on in this manner for y and z-components, we arrived at the
following form for E field.
r
E + = ex ( x, y )e − jβz xˆ + e y ( x, y )e − jβz yˆ + ez ( x, y )e − jβz zˆ
r (A.1a)
= (et ( x, y ) + ez (x, y )zˆ ) e − jβz
• Notice that up to now we have not solve the Wave Equations, but
merely determine the functional form of its solution.
• We still need to find out what is ex(x,y), ey(x,y), ez(x,y) and β.
• ( )
Using similar approach on ∇ 2 + ko2 H = 0 will yield similar expression for
H field.
v
H + = hx (x, y )e − jβz xˆ + h y (x, y )e − jβz yˆ + hz (x, y )e − jβz zˆ
v (A.1b)
( )
= ht (x, y ) + hz ( x, y )zˆ e − jβz
r
E − = e x (x, y )e + jβz xˆ + e y ( x, y )e + jβz yˆ − e z (x, y )e + jβz zˆ (A.3a)
r
= (et (x, y ) − e z (x, y )zˆ ) e + jβ z EM fields
Propagating
r In -z direction
H − = −hx ( x, y )e + jβz xˆ − h y ( x, y )e + jβz yˆ + hz ( x, y )e + jβz zˆ
r
( )
= − ht ( x, y ) + hz ( x, y )zˆ e + jβz (A.3b)
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 50
25
E and H fields Expressions (2)
• We can convert the phasor form into time-domain form, for instance for
E field propagating in +z direction:
r +
E + (x, y, z , t ) = Re E (x, y, z )e jωt
(A.4)
= e x (x, y )cos(ωt − β z )x + e y ( x, y )cos(ωt − β z ) y + ez ( x, y )cos(ωt − β z )zˆ
ˆ
• Where
r
E + (x, y , z , t ) = E x + (x, y, z , t )xˆ + E y + (x, y, z , t ) yˆ + E z + (x, y, z , t )zˆ (A.5a)
E x + ( x, y, z , t ) = e x (x, y )cos(ωt − βz )
Unit vector
E y + (x, y, z , t ) = e y ( x, y )cos(ωt − βz ) (A.5b)
E z + (x, y , z , t ) = e z (x, y )cos(ωt − β z )
26
E and H fields Expressions (4)
• There are 2 reasons for choosing the sign conventions for +ve and -ve
propagating waves as in (A.2) and (A.3).
r
– So that ∇ ⋅ E = 0 for both +ve and -ve propagating E field
(consistency with Maxwell’s Equations).
– The transverse magnetic field must change sign upon reversal of
the direction of propagation to obtain a change in the direction of
energy flow.
r
∇ ⋅ E+ = 0
r For +ve direction
⇒ ∇ t ⋅ et − jβe z = 0
r
∇ ⋅ E− = 0
r For -ve direction
⇒ ∇ t ⋅ et + jβ (− ez ) = 0
Phase Velocity
• It is easy to show that equation (A.2a) and (A.2b) describes traveling E
field waves (also for H).
• The speed where the E and H fields travel is called the Phase Velocity,
vp.
• Phase Velocity depends on the propagation mode (to be discussed
later), the frequency and the physical properties of the interconnect.
vp = ω
β (A.7)
27
Wavelength
• For interconnect excited by sinusoidal source, if we freeze the time at a
certain instant, say t = to, the E and H fields profile will vary in a
sinusoidal manner along z-axis.
vp
λ= f
Ex(x,y,z,to) Wavelength λ
ω
λ= ω
β
= 2βπ (A.8)
2π
z
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 55
Superposition Theorem
• At any instant of time, there are E and H fields propagating in the
positive and negative direction along the transmission line. The total
fields are a superposition of positive and negative directed fields:
+ − + −
E =E +E H =H +H
• A typical field distribution at a certain instant of time for the cross
section of two interconnects (two-wire and co-axial cable) is shown
below:
Conductors
H
E
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 56
28
Field Solution (1)
• To find the value of β and the functions ex, ey, ez, hx, hy, hz, we substitute
equations (A.2a) and (A.2b) into Maxwell or Wave equations.
r
E + = ex ( x, y )e − jβz xˆ + e y ( x, y )e − jβz yˆ + ez ( x, y )e − jβz zˆ
r
= (et ( x, y ) + ez ( x, y )zˆ ) e − jβz
r+
H = hx ( x, y )e − jβz xˆ + h y ( x, y )e − jβz yˆ + h z ( x, y )e − jβz zˆ y
r
( )
= ht ( x, y ) + hz ( x, y )zˆ e − jβz z
Maxwell Equations
r r
∇ × E = − j ωµ H Wave Equations
r r r r r
∇ × H = J + j ωε E
Boundary ∇ 2 E + ko2E = 0
r ρ
∇⋅E = + +
conditions
r r
∇ 2 H + ko2 H = 0
ε
r
∇⋅H = 0 ko = ω εµ
∂ez ∂hz
+ jβe y = − jωµ hx (A.10a) ∂y
+ jβh y = jωεe x (A.10d)
∂y
∂e
− jβe x − ∂xz = − jωµh y (A.10b) − jβ hx − ∂∂hxz = jωεe y (A.10e)
∂e y ∂e ∂h y
− ∂yx = − jωµ hz ∂h
∂x (A.10c) − ∂yx = jωεe z (A.10f)
∂x
29
Field Solution (3)
• From (A.10a)-(A.10f), we can express ex, ey, hx, hy in terms of ez and
hz:
These equations
hx = 2 ωε ∂yz − β ∂xz
j ∂e ∂h
describe the x,y components kc (A.11a)
of general EM wave
h y = 2 ωε ∂xz + β ∂yz
propagation in a −j ∂e ∂h
waveguiding system. k (A.11b)
c
The unknowns are
e x = 2 β ∂xz + ωµ ∂yz
−j ∂e ∂h
ez(x,y) and hz(x,y), called the
kc (A.11c)
Potential in the literature.
ey =
j − β ∂ez + ωµ ∂hz
kc2 ∂y ∂x (A.11d)
See the book by Collin [1],
Chapter 3 for alternative
derivation k c2 = ko 2 − β 2 , ko = ω µε = 2λπ (A.11e)
r r
∇ t 2 ht + k c 2 h t = 0 Only these are needed. The other
transverse field components can
k c 2 = k o2 − β 2 be derived from hz
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 60
30
TE Mode Summary (2)
• Setting ez = 0 in (A.11a)-(A.11d):
− jβ ∂hz − jβ ∂hz
hx = hy =
k 2 ∂x
c k 2 ∂y
c
∇ t 2 hz + k c2 hz = 0 + boundary conditions
for E and H fields (A.12b)
k c 2 = ko 2 − β 2
• Also from (A.12a) we can define a wave impedance for the TE mode.
e k Z − ey
Z TE = x = o o = (A.13)
hy β hx
31
TM Mode Summary (1)
• Setting hz = 0 in (A.11a)-(A.11d):
32
TM Mode Summary (3)
• Similarly from (A.14a) and (A.14b), we can show that
r
∇ t × ht = jωε ez zˆ ≠ 0
r
∇ t × et = 0
• We cannot define a unique current by (but we can define a unique
voltage): r r
I t = ∫ ht ⋅ dl
C
• Also from (A.14a) we can define a wave impedance for the TM mode.
e β −e
ZTM = hx = ωε = h y (A.15)
y x
33
TEM Mode (2)
• The same can be shown for ht:
r2
r
∇ h = −∇ × J
t t (A.17b)
• Equation (A.17a) is similar to Laplace equations in 2D. This implies
the transverse fields et is similar to the static electric fields that can
exist between conductors, so we could define a transverse scalar
potential Φ: r
et = −∇ t Φ ( x, y ) Transverse potential
⇒ ∇ t 2 Φ ( x, y ) = 0 (A.18)
r
• Also note that: ∇ t × et = ∇ t × (− ∇ t Φ ) = 0 (A.19)
See [1], Chapter 3
for alternative Using an important identity in vector calculus
derivation ∇ × (∇F ) = 0 Where F is arbitrary function
of position, i.e. F = F(x,y,z).
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 67
34
TEM Mode (3)
• Normally we would find et from (A.17a), then we derive ht from et :
r r
In free space ∇ 2 ht = 0 , ∇ × ht = 0
∂E y ∂E ∂E y ∂E x
H t = −1 − xˆ + x yˆ + zˆ Exercise: see if you can
∂y
−
r −1 r jωµ
∂z ∂z ∂x
H= ∇× E ∂e y ∂e x − jβ z
derive this equation
jωµ = −1 jβE y xˆ − jβE x yˆ +
jωµ
∂x
−
∂y
e zˆ
r
∇ t × et = 0
r −1
⇒ ht =
µ
ε
(e y xˆ − ex yˆ ) Zo = Intrinsic impedance of free space
ZTEM = Wave impedance of TEM
r mode
r
⇒ ht = Z1 ( zˆ × et ) (A.20a) µ e −e
o
Zo = ε
= hx = h y = ZTEM (A.20b)
y x
Vt(z,t)
Loop 1
r r
I t (z , t ) = ∫ H ⋅ dl b
Loop 1
See the more detailed
version of this note or br r a
see references [1] & [2]. Vt ( z , t ) = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
a
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 70
35
Extra: Independence of Vt and It from
Integration Path under TEM Mode
r
C2 ∇ t × et = 0
r r r r Since the shape of
Using Stoke’s ⇒ ∫∫ ∇ t × et ⋅ ds = ∫ et ⋅ dl = 0 loop L is arbitrary, as
Theorem S L
long as it stays in the
r r r r
⇒ ∫ et ⋅ dl + ∫ et ⋅ dl = 0 transverse plane, paths
L1 L2 L1, L2 and hence the
r r r r
Area S ⇒ ∫ et ⋅ dl = − ∫ et ⋅ dl integration path for
L1 L2 Vt is arbitrary.
r r r r
r
dl r ⇒ − ∫ et ⋅ dl = − ∫ et ⋅ dl = Vt
ds C1 Similar proof can be carried
− L1 L2
out for It, using the
r loop as
Loop L shown and ∇ t × ht = 0
Loop L
r r
+
It = ∫ ht ⋅ dl
C1 or C 2
C2
C1
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 71
36
TEM Mode Summary (2)
V ± = Vt e m jβz I ± = ± I t e m jβz
• The power carried by the EM wave along the Tline is given by
Poynting Theorem:
( ) 2
r r
P = 1 Re ∫∫ E × H * ⋅ ds = 1 Re VI *
2 (A.21)
See extra note
by F.Kung for
S the proof
⇒ P = 1 Re(Z c II * ) = 1 Re(Z c −1VV * )
2 2
C2 r
• Thus Vt = − ∫C1 et ⋅ dl will not be unique and will depends on the line
integration path. This means if we attempt to measure the “voltage”
across the Tline using an instrument, the reading will depend on the
wires and connection of the probe!
•
r r
(
Furthermore for non-TEM modes: P = 1 Re ∫∫ E × H * ⋅ ds ≠ 1 Re Vt I t *
2
) 2
S
• Thus we cannot characterize a Tline supporting non-TEM modes
using auxiliary quantities such as Vt and It.
37
Non-TEM Modes and Vt, It (2)
• As another example consider the TM mode in microstrip line:
r jβ jβ ∂ xˆ + ∂ yˆ e ( x, y )
et = − ∇ e =−
2 t z ∂x ∂y z
kc kc2 y
jβ ∂e z Y=H
r
dx + ∫ z dy
∂e
Vt = − ∫ et ⋅ dl = ∫ C
C kc2 C ∂x C
∂y
Y=0
x
• Using path C as shown in figure:
Under quasi-TEM condition, when
jβ ∂e z jβ
H
ez→ 0, kc also → 0, then Vt will be
a non-zero value.
Vt = ∫ dy = [ez (x, H ) − ez (x,0)] = 0
kc2 0 ∂y kc2
0 because of boundary condition
38
Phase Velocity for TEM, TE and TM
Modes
• Phase velocity is the propagation velocity of the EM field supported by
the tline. It is given by: V p = ω
β
39
Example A1 - Parallel Plate
Waveguide/Tline
• The parallel plate waveguide is the simplest type of waveguide that can
support TEM, TE and TM modes. Here we assume that W >> d so that
fringing field and variation along x can be ignored. ∂
=0
∂x
Conducting plates
y
x
0 W
Propagation along z axis
z
Example A1 Cont...
• Derive the EM fields for TEM, TE and TM modes for parallel plate
waveguide.
• Show that TEM mode can exist for all frequencies.
• Show that TE and TM modes possess cut-off frequency fc , where for
operating frequency f less than fc , the resulting EM field cannot
propagate.
40
Example A1 – Solution for TEM Mode
(1)
TEM mode Solution:
∇ t 2Φ (x, y ) = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ W , 0 ≤ y ≤ d
Φ ( x, 0 ) = 0 Boundary conditions
Φ ( x, d ) = Vo
1 ∇ × E = 1 zˆ × − Vo e − jβ z yˆ = ε Vo e − jβz xˆ
H t = j−ωµ t d
µ µ d
ε
y C2
Computing the transverse voltage and current:
r
Vt = − ∫ E t ⋅ dl = − ∫ − o e − jβz yˆ ⋅ dyyˆ = Vo e − jβz
d V
0 d C1
C
x
1
r W ε Vo − jβz ε Vo We − jβz
It = ∫ H t ⋅ dl = ∫0 µ d e
xˆ ⋅ dxxˆ =
µ d
C2
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 82
41
Example A1 – Solution for TEM Mode
(3)
Computing the power flow (power carried by the EM wave guided by the wave
-guide):
y
r S
P = 12 Re ∫∫ E t × H t ⋅ ds
*
x
S
= 12 Re ∫
0
W
∫ (−
0
d Vo
d e − jβz yˆ × )( ε Vo
µ d )
e + jβz xˆ ⋅ dxdyzˆ
= 12 Re ∫
0
W
∫(
d V
0 d
o
e − jβ z )( ε Vo
µ d )
e + jβz dxdy
[
= 12 Re Vo e − jβz ⋅ ε VoW
µ d ]
e jβz = 12 Re Vt I t* = 12 VoµW
[ ] 2
εd
dx
vp = ω = ω = 1
β ω µε µε
42
Example A1 – Solution for TM Mode (1)
( ) ( )
jβ An
cos nπ y e − jβz yˆ
the TM mode is usually called
or E t = −
nπ d the TMn mode.
d
jωε ∂e
Ht = z xˆ − jωε ∂e z yˆ e − jβz
k 2 ∂y kc2 ∂x
c
jk A
( )
= o n cos nπ y e − jβ z xˆ
µ nπ
ε d
( ) d
43
Example A1 – Solution for TM Mode (3)
β n = k o2 − kc2 = ω 2 µε − ( ndπ )
2
Since the TM mode can only propagate if β is real, and the smallest value for β
Is 0, then when β=0:
2
ω 2 µε − nπ = 0
d
( )
⇒ ω = nπ = 2πf
d µε
⇒ f = n
2d µε
vp = ω = ω
β
( )
ω 2 µε − nπ
d
2
For f > fcutoff , we observe that phase velocity vp is actually greater than the
speed of light!!!
NOTE:
The EM fields can travel at speed greater than light, however we can show that
the rate of energy flow is less than the speed-of-light. This rate of energy
flow corresponds to the speed of the photons if the propagating EM wave is
treated as a cluster of photons. See the extra notes for the proof.
44
Dominant Propagation Mode
• For the various transmission line topology, there is a dominant mode.
• This dominant mode of propagation is the first mode to exist at the
lowest operating frequency. The secondary modes will come into
existent at higher frequencies.
• The propagation modes of Tline depends on the dielectric and the cross
section of the transmission line.
• For Tline that can support TEM mode, the TEM mode will be the
dominant mode as it can exist at all frequencies (there is no cut-off
frequency).
45
Quasi TEM Mode (1)
• Luckily for planar Tline configuration whose dominant mode is not TEM,
the TM or TE dominant modes can be approximated by TEM mode at
‘low frequency’.
• For instance microstrip line does not support TEM mode. The actual
mode is TM. However at a few GHz, ez is much smaller than et and ht
that it can be ignored. We can assume the mode to be TEM without
incurring much error. Thus it is called quasi-TEM mode.
• Low frequency approximation is usually valid when wavelength >>
distance between two conductors. For typical microstrip/stripline on
PCB, this can means frequency below 20 GHz or lower.
• The Ez and Hz components approach zero at ‘low frequency’, and the
propagation mode approaches TEM, hence known as quasi-TEM.
When this happens we can again define unique voltage and current for
the system.
See Collin [1], Chapter 3 for more mathematical
illustration on this.
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 91
Non-TEM mode
E Quasi-TEM mode
r
∇ t × et = 0 H
r
or ∇ t × ht = 0
Vt and It
Yes
TEM mode
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 92
46
Extra: Why Inhomogeneous Structures
Does Not Support Pure TEM Mode (1)
• We will use Proof by Contradiction. Suppose TEM mode is supported.
The propagation factor in air and dielectric would be:
β air = ω µε o β die = ω µε oε r
• EM fields in air will travel faster than in the dielectric. For TEM mode
β air < β die
⇒v
p (air )= ω > v p (die ) = ω
β air β die
• Now consider the boundary condition at the air/dielectric interface. The
E field must be continuous across the boundary from Maxwell’s
equation. Examining the x component of the E field:
Air
E E
y x(air )e − jβ air z = x (die )e − jβ die z
E x (air ) − jβ die z
Dielectric
x ⇒ =e = e − j (β die − β air )z
E x (die ) e − j β air z
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 93
47
Example A2 – Minimum Frequency for
Quasi-TEM Mode in Microstrip Line
• Estimate the low frequency limit for microstrip line.
H = 1.6mm
Here we replace >> sign
C ≈ 3.0×108 with the requirement that
λ = C/f > 20H = 32.0mm wavelength > 20H. You can
f < C/0.032 = 9.375GHz use larger limit, as this is
basically a rule of thumb.
fcritical = 9.375GHz
Physical Tline can be Physical Tline can be Physical Tline cannot Physical Tline cannot
Modeled by equivalent Modeled by equivalent be modeled by be modeled by
Electrical circuit. Electrical circuit. equivalent electrical equivalent
circuit. electrical circuit.
Phase velocity. Phase velocity.
V p = ωβ = 1 Vp = ω ≅ 1 Phase velocity. Phase velocity.
µε β µε eff vp = ω = 1 vp = ω = 1
β β
ω 2 µε − k c2 ω 2 µε − k c2
No cut-off frequency. No cut-off frequency. Cut-off frequency. Cut-off frequency.
kc kc
fc = fc =
2π µε 2π µε
Non-dispersive Non-dispersive Dispersive Dispersive
48
Why Vt and It is so Important ? (1)
• When we can define voltage and current along Tline or high-frequency
circuit for that matter, then we can analyze the system using circuit
theory instead of field theory.
• Circuit theories such as KVL, KCL, 2-port network theory are much
easier to solve than Maxwell equations or wave equations.
Antenna equivalent
circuit
Microstrip
antenna
49
Examples of Circuit Analysis* Based
Microwave/RF CAD Software
Agilent’s Advance Design System
Applied Wave Research’s
Microwave Office
Ansoft’s Desinger
50
Distributed Electrical Circuit Model for
Transmission Line (1)
• Since transmission line is a long interconnect, the field and current
profile at any instant in time is not uniform along the line.
• It cannot be modeled by lumped circuit.
• However if we divide the Tline into many short segments (< 0.1λ), the
field and current profile in each segment is almost uniform.
• Each of these short segments can be modeled as RLCG network.
• This assumption is true when the EM field propagation mode is TEM
or quasi-TEM.
• From now on we will assume the Tline under discussion support
the dominant mode of TEM or quasi-TEM.
• For transmission line, these associated R, L, C and G parameters are
distributed, i.e. we use the per unit length values. The propagation of
voltage and current on the transmission line can be described in terms
of these distributed parameters.
Magnitude
of Ez in
YZ plane
Current profile
along conducting
trace
Within each segment
the current is more or
It
less constant, in and out
current is similar. Also
the EM can be considered Vt
static. June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 102
51
Distributed Parameters (1)
• The L and C elements in the electrical circuit model for Tline is due to
magnetic flux linkage and electric field linkage between the conductors.
• See Appendix 2: Advanced Concepts – Distributed RLCG Model for
Transmission Line and Telegraphic Equations for the proofs.
∆z I L ∆z
V1 C ∆z V2
Electric
Magnetic field
field linkage
H linkage
Dielectric loss
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 104
52
Distributed Parameters (3)
• Thus a transmission line can be considered as a cascade of many of these
equivalent circuit sections. Working with circuit theory and circuit elements
are much easier than working with E and H fields using Maxwell
equations.
• In order for this RLCG model for Tline to be valid from low to very high
frequency, each segment length must approach zero, and the number of
segment needed to accurately model the Tline becomes infinite.
• This electrical circuit model for Tline is commonly known as Distributed
RLCG Circuit Model. It ∆z→0
Vt
Distributed
RLCG circuit
It
Vt
53
Finding RLCG Parameters From
Energy Consideration
The instantaneous power absorbed by an inductor L is:
i(t)
Pind (t ) = v (t )i (t )
Assuming i(t) increases from 0 at t = 0 to Io at t = to, total energy stored
v(t) L
by inductor is:
i(t) t t t
Eind = ∫ o Pind (τ )dτ = ∫ o v(τ )i(τ )dτ = ∫ o L di (τ )i (τ )dτ
io 0 0 0 dτ
I
t ⇒ Eind = ∫ o Li ⋅ di = 1 LI o2
0 0
to 2
This energy stored by the inductor is contained within the magnetic field
created by the current (for instance, see D.J. Griffiths, “Introductory
electrodynamics”, Prentice Hall, 1999). From EM theory the stored energy in magnetic
r
field is given by: E = µ
Io
H 2 ∫∫∫ H dxdydz
V E = EH
Both energy are the same, hence: ind r µ 2
⇒ 1 LI o2 = ∫∫∫ H dxdydz
H 2 2
V
µ r2
⇒L= ∫∫∫ H dxdydz
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee I o2 V 107
Long interconnect:
l > 0.1λ
TEM or
quasi-TEM mode
L11 Distributed
Parameters: RLCG circuit
Per unit length C12
R, L, C, G matrices. R11
L12 L22
Usually as a function
Electrical Symbol
Frequency. C1G C2G
L11 L12 C11 − C12
L12 L22 − C12 C22
R22
R11 R12 G11 G12
C1G = C11 − C12
R21 R22 G21 G22
C2G = C22 − C12
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 108
54
Telegraphic Equations for Vt and It
• Much like the EM field in the physical model of the Tline is governed by
Maxwell’s Equations, we can show that the instantaneous transverse
voltage Vt and current It on the distributed RLCG model are governed
by a set of partial differential equations (PDE) called the Telegraphic
Equations (See derivation in Appendix 2).
• For simplicity we will drop the subscript ‘t’ from now.
Fourier
In time-domain Transforms In time-harmonic form
∂V ∂I ∂V
= − RI − L = −(R + jωL )I = − ZI
∂z ∂t Inverse Fourier ∂z (4.2b)
(4.2a) Transforms ∂I
∂I ∂V = −(G + jωC )V = −YV
= −GV − C ∂z
∂z ∂t
I
Distributed
V
RLCG circuit
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 109
55
Solutions of Telegraphic Equations (2)
• Vo+, Vo-, Io+, Io- are unknown constants. When we study transmission
line circuit, we will see how Vo+, Vo-, Io+, Io- can be determined from the
‘boundary’ of the Tline.
• For the rest of this discussions, exact values of these constants are not
needed.
Vs Vt ZL
56
Characteristic Impedance (Zc)
• An important parameter in Tline is the ratio of voltage over current, called
the Characteristic Impedance, Zc.
• Since the voltage and current are waves, this ratio can be only be
computed for voltage and current traveling in similar direction.
∂V
= − ZI
From Telegraphic Equations ∂z
⇒ −γVo+ e −γz = − ZI o+ e −γz
⇒ Vo+ = Z I o+
γ
V − eγz R + jω L
Or Zc = − o = A function of frequency
−
Io e γz G + jω C
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 113
f (ωt − β z ) Awave
general function describing propagating
in +z direction
• And recognizing that both v(z,t) and i(z,t) are propagating waves, the
phase velocity is given by:
ω
vp = (4.6)
β
57
α)
Attenuation (α
• The attenuation factor α decreases the amplitude of the voltage and
current wave along the Tline.
• For +ve traveling wave:
y
Vo− cos(ωt + βz + φ − )eαz
z
Z=0
Dispersion (1)
Since γ = γ (ω ) = α (ω ) + jβ (ω )
Video
ω
vp =
β (ω ) Cause of
dispersion
• We observe that the propagation
velocity is a function of the
wave’s frequency. Components
• Different component of the
signal propagates at different
velocity (and also attenuate at
different rate), resulting in the
envelope of the signal being
distorted at the output. Low dispersion
Transmission Line vin vout
vin vout
58
Dispersion (2)
• Dispersion causes Video
High dispersion
Transmission Line vin vout
vin vout
Dispersion (3)
• At the output, the sinusoidal components overlap at the wrong ‘timing’,
causing distortion of the pulse.
1
1
0.5
0.5
Vout( i⋅ ∆t , 1)
Vin( i⋅ ∆t , 1)
Vout( i⋅ ∆t , 3) 0
Vin( i⋅ ∆t , 3) 0
Vout( i⋅ ∆t , 5)
Vin( i⋅ ∆t , 5)
0.5
0.5
1
1 0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
vin vout i
i
1.5
1.5 In this example, the
higher the harmonic
1
1 frequency the larger is
the phase velocity, i.e.
Voutt ( i⋅ ∆t ) 0.5
Vint( i⋅ ∆t ) 0.5 higher frequency signal
takes lesser time to travel
0
0 the length of the Tline.
0.5
0.5 0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
i
i
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 118
59
The Implications
γ = jβ = jω LC L 1 1
Zc = vp = =
C LC µε
60
Appendix 2
Advanced Concepts –
Distributed RLCG Model for
Transmission Line and
Telegraphic Equations
61
Distributed Parameters Model (2)
I2 r ρ
∆z ∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ EdW = ∫∫∫ ε dW
A2 W W Using Divergence Theorem
r ρ
A1 Surface S ⇒ ∫∫ E ⋅ d S = ∫∫∫ ε dW
I1 S W
C1 r ∂ρ
Volume W ⇒ ∂ 1
∫∫ E ⋅ d S = ε ∫∫∫ ∂t dW
∂t
S W
r
C2 ⇒ ∂ ∫∫ E ⋅ d S = 1 ∫∫∫ − ∇ ⋅ J dW
See the following ∂t ε
S W
slide for more r r r r r r r
proof. ⇒ ε ∂ ∫∫ E ⋅ d S = − ∫∫ J ⋅ dS = − ∫∫ J ⋅ dS − ∫∫ J ⋅ dS
∂t
S S A1 A2
This means the I1 I2 r
relation between ⇒ε ∂ ∫∫ E ⋅ d S = − I1 + I 2
∂t When ∆z
I1 and I2 is as if S is small
V
⇒ ∂ ((C∆z )V ) = (C∆z ) ∂V = I 2 − I1
a capacitor is as compared
62
Distributed Parameters (4)
• Combining the relationship between the L, C and transverse voltages
and currents, the equivalent circuit for a short section of transmission
line supporting TEM or quasi-TEM propagating EM field can be
represented by the equivalent circuit:
∆z I L ∆z
V1 C ∆z V2
R ∆z
I L ∆z
*Under lossy condition, R, L and G
are usually function of frequency,
V1 C ∆z G ∆z V2
hence the Tline is dispersive.
63
Extra: Lossy Dielectric
• Assuming the dielectric is non-magnetic, then the dielectric loss is due
to leakage (non-zero conductivity) and polarization loss*.
• Polarization loss is due to the vibration of the polarized molecules in
the dielectric when an a.c. electric field is imposed.
• Both mechanisms can be modeled by considering an effective
conductivity σd for the dielectric at the operating frequency. This is
usually valid for small electric field.
Loss current density *We should also include
r r r r r r hysterisis loss in
∇ × H = J + jωε r ε o E ⇒ ∇ × H = σ d E + jωε r ε o E ferromagnetic material.
r r
⇒ ∇ × H = jωε r ε o 1 +
σd
ωε E
j rε o
r
⇒ ∇ × H = jωε r ε o (1 − j tan δ )E
r
r
(
∇ × H = jω ε ' − jε " E
r
)
σd ε ' = ε r ε o ε " = ε r ε o tan δ
tan δ =
ωε r ε o
Note that σd is a function of frequency
This is called Loss Tangent
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 127
64
Derivation of Telegraphic Equations (1)
• For Tline supporting TEM and quasi-TEM modes, the V and I on the line
is the solution of a hyperbolic partial differential equation (PDE) known
as telegraphic equations. Consider first lossless line:
Use Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
jωL∆z I2
I2 I1=I
I1 L ∆z
V1 V2
V1 C ∆z V2
V2 = V1 − jωL∆zI
V −V
⇒ 2 1 = − jωLI
Observing that: ∆z
lim ∆z →0 2 1 = ∂V
V −V
∆z ∂z ⇒ ∂V = − jωLI
∂z
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 129
I1 − ( jωC∆z )V = I 2
I −I
⇒ 2 1 = − jωCV
∆z
Again observing that:
I 2 − I1 ∂V
= −C 2
∂I = − jωCV Lossless
Telegraphic
∆z ∂t ∂z Equations
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 130
65
Relationship Between Field Solutions
and Telegraphic Equations
Interconnect
Example A3
• Find the RLCG parameters of the low loss parallel plate waveguide in
Example A1. Assuming the conductivity of the conductor is σ and the
dielectric between the plates is complex (this means the dielectric is
lossy too):
ε = ε '− jε "
• Use the expressions for Et and Ht as derived in Example A1.
µd ε 'W
L= H/m C= F/m
W d
2 ωε " σ W
R= Ω/m G= C = d Ω −1/m
σ cδ sW ε' d
66
5.0 - Transmission Line
Synthesis On Printed Circuit
Board (PCB) And Related
Structures
67
Stripline Technology (2)
• A variety of substrates, Thin and Thick-Film technologies can be
employed.
• For more information on microstrip line circuit design, you can refer to
T.C. Edwards, “Foundation for microstrip circuit design”, 2nd Edition
1992, John Wiley & Sons. (3rd edition, 2000 is also available).
• For more information on stripline circuit design, you can consult H.
Howe, “Stripline circuit design”, 1974, Artech House.
• For more information on microwave materials and fabrication
techniques, you can refer to T.S. Laverghetta, “Microwave materials and
fabrication techniques”, 3rd edition 2000, Artech House.
68
Factors Affecting Choices of
Substrates
• Operating frequency.
• Electrical characteristics - e.g. nominal dielectric constant, anisotropy,
loss tangent, dispersion of dielectric constant.
• Copper weight (affect low frequency resistance).
• Tg, glass transition temperature.
• Cost.
• Tolerance.
• Manufacturing Technology - Thin or thick film technology.
• Thermal requirements - e.g. thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE) along x,y and z axis.
• Mechanical requirements - flatness, coefficient of thermal expansion,
metal-film adhesion (peel strength), flame retardation, chemical and
water resistance etc.
Fair for coupled line Good for coupled line Not suitable for coupled
structures structures line structures
Need through holes to Need through holes No through hole required
connect to ground to connect to ground to connect to ground
69
Field Solution for EM Waves on
Stripline Structure (1)
• In microstrip and co-planar Tline the dielectric material does not
completely surround the conductor, consequently the fundamental mode
of propagation is not a pure TEM mode. However at a frequency below
a few GHz (<10GHz at least), the EM field propagation mode is quasi-
TEM. The microstrip Tline can be characterized in terms of its
approximate distributed RLCG parameters.
• For the stripline, the dominant mode is TEM hence it can be
characterized by its distributed RLCG parameters to very high
frequencies.
• Unfortunately there is no simple closed-form analytic expressions that for
the EM fields or RLCG parameters for a planar Tline.
• A method known as ‘Conformal Mapping’ is usually used to find the
approximate closed-form solution of the Laplace partial differential
equation for the TEM/quasi-TEM mode fields. The expression can be
very complex. See Ramo [3], Chapter 7 for more information on Conformal
Mapping method. Collin [1], Chapter 3 provides mathematical
derivation of the field solutions for parallel plate waveguide with
inhomogeneous dielectric and the microstrip line.
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 139
70
Typical Iterative Flow for Transmission
Line Design
Start
Determine R, L, C, G
Draw Tline physical from (4.1)
cross section
Yes
End
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 141
Design Equations
• By varying the physical dimensions and using the flow of the previous
slide, one can obtain a collection of results (Zc, α, β) .
• These results can be plotted as points on a graph.
• Curve-fitting techniques can then be used to derive equations that
match the results with the physical parameters of the Tline.
300
263.177
µo , εo Zc ( x, 1)
Zc ( x, 2)
200
W εr=1
Zc
Zc ( x, 3)
Zc ( x, 4) εr=2
εr=3
d µ,ε Zc ( x, 5) 100
Zc ( x, 6)
εr=6
15.313 0
0 2 4 6 8
0.1 x 8
W/d
71
Design Equations for Microstrip Line
1
vp = (5.1c)
µε eff ε o
Only valid when quasi-TEM approximation and very low loss condition applies.
Z K (k )
Zc ≅ o ⋅ d
4 K 1− k 2 (5.2a) µ,ε
d
π −1
2
dφ πw
K ( x) = ∫ k = cosh
4d (5.2b)
0 1 − x 2 sin 2 φ w
µ
Complete elliptic integral Z o =
of the 2nd kind ε
1
vp = (5.2c)
µε
Only valid when TEM, quasi-TEM approximation and very low loss condition applies.
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 144
72
Design Equations for Co-planar Line
Co-planar Line ([3], assume d is large compare to s):
a
Effective dielectric
constant (See Appendix 3) w
εr +1
ε eff = (5.3a)
2
Zo a w
Zc ≅ ln 2 for 0 < < 0.173
d
π ε eff w a
−1 s
w (5.3b)
πZ o 1 + a w
Zc ≅ ln 2 for 0.173 < < 1
4 ε eff 1 − w a
a
1
vp =
Zo =
µo
µε eff ε o (5.3c)
εo
Only valid when quasi-TEM approximation and very low loss condition applies.
73
Dispersive Property of Microstrip and
Co-planar Line (2)
Microstrip line Stripline
εeff Region where (5.1a) εeff
and (5.1b) applies.
εr εr
1 1
f f
fcritical
Limit for quasi-TEM approximation, see Example A1 and on v = 1
p
how to estimate fcritical µε eff ε o
74
Example 5.1 - Microstrip Line Design
• Ω microstrip line, given that d = 1.57 mm and
(a) Design a 50Ω
dielectric constant = 4.6 (Here it means find w).
160
•Steps... 150
120
w/d = 1.8 for 50Ω. 110
• Thus w = 1.8 x 1.57 mm = 2.82 mm 100
Zo S 90
i
4
80
3.75 70
60
εe S 3.5
i 50
40
3.25
50Ω
30
3 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
W/dS i S
W/di
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee
1.8 149
From εeff versus w/d, we see that εeff = 3.55 at w/d = 1.8. Therefore:
1 0.065
vp = = 1.601 × 108 ms −1 ⇒ t delay = ≅ 406 ps
ε o µ o ⋅ 3.51 vp
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Microstrip Line Design Example Cont...
• (d) When the low loss microstrip line is considered short, derived
its equivalent LC network.
L 1 1
Zcv p = × = L = Z c 2C = 313.27 nH/m
C LC C
1 1
C= = = 124.6pF/m
Z c v p 50 × 1.601 × 108
For shot interconnect we could model the Tline as: C ⋅ 0.065 = 8.096 pF
L ⋅ 0.065 = 20.36nH
1 L∆z = 10.18nH 10.18nH L∆z = 20.36nH
2
Again using the criteria that wavelength > 20d for quasi-TEM mode
to propagate:
vp vp
λ= > 20d = 0.031 ⇒ f critical < ≅ 5.10GHz
f critical 0.031
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Microstrip Line Design Example Cont...
65.0 mm
µo , εo
2.82 mm
1.57 mm
µ = µo , ε = 4.6εo
Zc = 50Ω
vp = 1.601x108 m/s
tdelay = 406psec
Maximum usable frequency = fcritical = 5.10 GHz.
Short interconnect limit = 123.2 MHz
TL4
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Example 5.3 - Stripline Design Example
Using 2D EM Field Solver Program
• Here we demonstrate the use of a program called Maxwell 2D by Ansoft
Inc. www.ansoft.com to design a stripline.
• The version used is called Maxwell SV Ver 9.0, a free version which can
be downloaded from the company’s website.
• The software uses finite element method (FEM) to compute the two-
dimensional (2D) static E and H field of an array of metallic objects.
• It is assumed that the stripline is lossless.
• Two projects are created, one is the Electrostatic problem for calculation
of static electric field and distributed capacitance, the other is
Magnetostatic problem, for calculation of static magnetic field and
distributed inductance.
• Characteristic impedance of the stripline can then be computed from the
distributed capacitance and inductance.
78
Example 5.3 - Stripline Cross Section
• Draw the cross section of the model and assign material.
FR4 Substrate
“substrate” Signal conductor GND planes
(PEC) “Trace1” (PEC)
“GND2”
0.6mm
“GND1”
8.0mm
• Set drawing units to micron.
• Set drawing size to 10000um for x
and 4000um for y. 0.036mm
• Set grid to dU = dV = 100um. 0.3mm
• Draw model, use direct entry mode
for conducting structures like GND
planes and signal. 0.4mm
• Name signal conductor “Trace1” and 0.3mm 0.036mm
GND planes “GND1” and “GND2”.
• Name FR4 as “substrate”, then group
both “GND1” and “GND2” as one object “GND”.
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 157
0V
1V
0V 0V
0V
Balloon Boundaries
79
Example 5.3 - Electrostatics: Setup
Executive Parameters
• Under ‘Setup Executive Parameters’ tab, select ‘Matrix…’ and proceed
to perform the capacitance matrix setup as shown.
80
Example 5.3 - Finite Element Method (1)
• FEM is used to solve for the approximate scalar potential V (or φ) for
electrostatic problem and vector potential A for magnetostatic problem
at the vertex of each triangle. The partial differential equations (PDE)
to solve are the Poisson’s equations.
ρ r r
∇ 2V = ε ∇ 2 A = µJ
• 2D quasi-static E
r field can then be obtained by:
Et (x, y ) = −∇ tVt (x, y )
• Similarly magnetic flux intensity H can be obtained from:
r )
H t (x, y ) = − 1 ∇ t × [Az (x, y )z ]
µ
81
Example 5.3 - Electrostatics: The Triangular
Mesh
82
Example 5.3 - Electrostatics: Plot of Voltage
Contour
83
Example 5.3 - Magnetostatics: Setup
Boundary Conditions
Balloon Boundaries
84
Example 5.3 - Magnetostatics: Plot of B
field Magnitude
µ r 2
L=
2 ∫∫∫ t dv
H
It V
85
Example 5.3 - Derivation of Parameters for
Stripline
Zc = L = 2.5093×10 − 7 = 35.819Ω
C 1.9558×10 −10
1
vp = = 1.427 × 108 ms −1
LC
86
Example 5.4 - Derivation of LC Parameters
from AppCAD V3.02 Results
Z c = 36.0
v p = 0.466v p (vacumn )
C= 1 = 1.988 × 10 −10 F / m
Zcv p
L = Z c 2C = 2.577 × 10 − 7 H / m
Appendix 3
87
The Origin of Effective Dielectric Constant
(εεeff)
• The approach can be traced to a paper by Bryant and Weiss1.
Assuming low loss and quasi-TEM mode:
vp = 1 Zc = L = 1
µo , εo LC C v pC
W
Define ε eff = C
C1
Speed of
d µ,ε C Then vp = 1 = c light in vacumn
LC1 ⋅ ε eff ε eff
⇒ Zc = 1
C1 is computed via numerical
µo , εo C1 c ε eff ⋅C1 methods for various W and d
88
Full-Wave Analysis
• Full-wave analysis is usually carried out using numerical methods such
as Method of Moments (MoM), Finite Element Methods (FEM), Finite-
Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) and Transmission Line Matrix (TLM).
• In all these methods, the Maxwell Equations are solved directly or
indirectly instead of transforming the equations into circuit theory
expressions (e.g. the telegraphic equations).
THE END
89
Example A1 – Solution for TE Mode
The EM fields for TE mode are shown below:
ko = ω µε
µo
Zo = εo
Exercise
• Suppose we have a parallel-plate transmission line with the following
parameters:
– W = 16.0 mm
– d = 1.0 mm
– εr = 2.5, µr = 1.0, dielectric breakdown at |E| = 3000 V/m.
• The length of the line is 10 meter. Find the cut-off frequency of the for
TM and TE modes.
• If TEM mode is propagating along the line, find the characteristic
impedance Zc of the line, and the maximum power that can be carried
by this line without damaging the dielectric.
90
Exercise Cont…
• Assuming this transmission line is used in the following system.
Estimate the maximum working distance R.
Omni-directional
Antenna
Parallel-
plate Tline
Transmission
Tower Distance = R
Antenna gain G = 10
Receiver
If the Receiver can detect
the data when received power
June 2008 © 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee
is 2 µWatt. 181
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