Concrete Technology Year1 2019

Course Code and Name: ECBD1104Concrete Technology
Course Level: Year I Semester I

Course Credit: 3 CU
The course introduces to the student the basics of concrete technology, concrete manufacture
and use.
Learning outcomes
The student:
 Outlines the basics of concrete technology, and manufacture and use of concrete
materials.
 Demonstrates the skills of producing concrete, and use of concrete in construction.
Competences
By the end of the course the student should be able to:

 Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of concrete.
 Give an account of the manufacture of cements used in concrete.
 Identify and classify aggregates suitable for making concrete.
 Design and analyze tests for concrete mixes for different uses.
 Produce detailed drawings of reinforced concrete elements.
 Mix and produce good quality concrete for various types of works
 Design and make various types of formwork for concrete works.
 Supervise the construction of concrete structures.
Detailed course description Duration
Basics of concrete technology: 7 hours

 Properties and type of concrete
 Materials for concrete, choice of Aggregates: Type of Aggregates,
Production of Aggregates, Grading of Aggregates.
 Durability of concrete, quality control inspection and Testing, Detailing.
Cements: 7 hours
 Types of cements, Manufacture of cements, admixtures.
 Water: water/ cement ration and workability.
Concrete Mix design: 10 hours
 Batching of Aggregates, Cement and water, mixing and Transporting
concrete, Preparation and Joints: placement of concrete, compaction of
concrete, curing of concrete, surface finishing.
 Form work, Reinforcement, concrete mixing plant.
 Protecting concrete, concrete in hot weather, concrete in cold weather,
concreting in wet conditions. Shrinkage, cracking creep.
Concrete Structure Repairs 6 hours
 Concrete for Road construction
 Piles, fluid retaining structures,
 Pre-cast concrete products, floors and floor surfaces
Concrete Production Practice: 15 hours
 Concrete Mix, Concrete Curing,
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Concrete technology notes for DITTE programme NIC Abilonino. Organized by Lolu Moses Igaru. Tel.
0782565315, Email: loluigaru@gmail.com. Semester one 2019.
 Fresh Concrete Tests.
 Testing of Dry Samples.
Mode of Delivery: Using: Guided discussion, interactive lecture, tutorials, group work, project
work, modeling, demonstration and practice, experimentation, field study and report writing,
Assessment:
 Assignments 5%
 Tests 10%
 Practical/project work 25%
 Final examination60%
Total 100%
Referemnce:
1. Chudley, R. and Greeno, R. (1999). Building Construction Handbook. 3rd ed. Butterworth-
Heinemann, London.
2. Allen, E and J. Iano(2008). Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and
Methods. Wiley.
3. Jackson, N. &Dhir, R. K. 1988. Civil Engineering Materials. Macmillan, Hampshire.
4. Wight, J. K and J. G. MacGregor (2011).Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Design (6th
Edition)
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Contents
UNIT ONE: BASICS OF CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY:..........................................................................6
1.0 INTRODUCTION:............................................................................................................................6
LEARNING OUTCOMES:.................................................................................................................6
COMPETENCES EXPECTED:..........................................................................................................6
1.1 DEFINITION OF CONCRETE.........................................................................................................6
1.2 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE........................................................................................................7
1.2.1 WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE:...........................................................................................7
1.2.2 SEGREGATION:.......................................................................................................................8
1.2.3 CONSISTENCY.........................................................................................................................8
1.2.4 BLEEDING................................................................................................................................8
1.2.5 STRENGTH...............................................................................................................................9
1.2.6 DURABILITY............................................................................................................................9
1.2.7 PERMEABILITY.......................................................................................................................9
1.2.8 CREEP........................................................................................................................................9
1.2.9 SHRINKAGE...........................................................................................................................10
1.3.0 TYPES OF CONCRETE:.............................................................................................................10
1.3.1 CEMENTATION MATERIAL;...............................................................................................10
1.3.1.0. LIME CONCRETE AND CEMENT CONCRETE..............................................................10
1.3.1.1 PLAIN CONCRETES...........................................................................................................11
1.3.1.2 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)....................................................................11
1.3.1.3 PRE-STRESSED...................................................................................................................12
1.3.1.3 POST STRESSED.................................................................................................................12
1.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE:................................12
1.3.2.0 LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE.............................................................................................12
1.3.2.1 CELLULAR OR AERATED CONCRETE...........................................................................13
1.3.2.2 FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE....................................................................................13
1.3.2.3 POLYMER CONCRETE......................................................................................................13
1.3.2.4 SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE.....................................................................................13
1.3.2.5 HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CONCRETE............................................................................13
1.3.2.6 ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE.................................................................................14
1.4 AGGREGATES..................................................................................................................................14
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1.4.0. INTRODUCTION TO AGGREGATES:.........................................................................................14
1.4.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY AGGREGATES:.............................................................15
1.4.1. USES OF AGGREGATES..........................................................................................................15
1.4.3 OCCURRENCE OF AGGREGATES..........................................................................................15
1.4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES.....................................................................................16
1.4.4.1 LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATES.......................................................................................16
1.4.4.2 HEAVY WEIGHT AGGREGATES.....................................................................................16
1.4.4.3 NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATE....................................................................................16
1.4.4.4 GRADING OF AGGREGATES:..........................................................................................16
1.4.4.5 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF THE AGGREGATES......................................................................17
1.4.4.6 HOW TO CARRY –OUT SIEVE ANALYSIS ON AGGREGATES...................................17
1.4.4.7 BULKING OF SAND............................................................................................................20
1.4.4.8 BULKING TEST OF SAND.................................................................................................20
1.4.4.9 PRODUCTION OF AGGREGATES....................................................................................21
1.4.4.10 BRITISH STANDARD TESTS FOR AGGREGATES.......................................................22
12. Silt content...................................................................................................................................23
1.4.4.11 STORAGE OF AGGREGATES:.........................................................................................23
2.12 WATER AND CONCRETE MIX DESIGN:................................................................................23
1.4.4.12 AGGREGATE CEMENT RATIO.......................................................................................24
2.0 CEMENT............................................................................................................................................25
2.1 HISTORY OF CEMENT:...................................................................................................................25
2.3 MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT........................................................................................................26
2.4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT.....................................................................................27
APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION LIMITS OF OXIDES IN PORTLAND CEMENT.......................27
2.5 COMPONENT OF ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT [OPC]......................................................28
2.5.1 MAIN CONSITUTENTS IN ATYPICAL PORTLAND CEMENT............................................28
2.6 HYDRATION OF CEMENT..............................................................................................................28
2.7 TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT....................................................................................................29
2.8 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT..........................................................................................30
2.9 HEAT OF HYDRATION....................................................................................................................32
2.30 PRECAUTIONS TAKEN DURING STORAGE OF CEMENT.......................................................33
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2.31 FIELD TEST FOR CEMENT...........................................................................................................33
ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE ROADWAYS............................................................................46
DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE ROADWAYS......................................................................46
ADVANTAGES OF ASPHALT (BITUMEN) ROAD......................................................................47
DISADVANTAGES OF ASPHALT (BITUMEN) ROAD:..............................................................47
CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................47
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEFINITION.......................................................................................53
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FORMULA..........................................................................................53
Procedure: Compressive Strength Test of Concrete Cubes....................................................................53
Apparatus for Concrete Cube Test.....................................................................................................54
Preparation of Concrete Cube Specimen...........................................................................................54
Mixing of Concrete for Cube Test.....................................................................................................54
Sampling of Cubes for Test...............................................................................................................55
Curing of Cubes.................................................................................................................................55
Precautions for Tests.........................................................................................................................55
Procedure for Concrete Cube Test.....................................................................................................55
CALCULATIONS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH.........................................................................56
Reports of Cube Test.........................................................................................................................56
Results of Concrete Cube Test...........................................................................................................56
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT VARIOUS AGES..............................................56
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF CONCRETE AT 7 AND 28 DAYS. .57
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UNIT ONE: BASICS OF CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY:
1.0 INTRODUCTION:
Basics of concrete technology for the purposes of covering this course unit will concentrate on;
1. Definition of concrete
2. Properties of concrete
3. type of concrete
4. Materials for concrete.
5. Aggregates: Type of Aggregates, Production of Aggregates, Grading of Aggregates.
6. Durability of concrete, quality control inspection and Testing, Detailing of sand and
aggregates.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Definition of concrete
2. Description of properties of concrete.
3. Explanation of types of concrete.
4. Demonstration of grades of concrete.
COMPETENCES EXPECTED:
By the end of the course the student should be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of concrete.
2. Give an account of the manufacture of cements used in concrete.
3. Identify and classify aggregates suitable for making concrete.
4. Describe the basic tests of sand, aggregates and concrete
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1.1 DEFINITION OF CONCRETE.
Concrete is mixture of cement, sand and aggregates in specified ratios/proportions with sufficient
amount of water. Concrete requires a mould/formwork into which it is cast to take the shape of
the mould. Concrete under a suitable temperature and humidity hardens to give the required
strength.
DISCUSSION:
Concrete is a versatile material in construction work. Discuss the applicability of this statement.
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1.2 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE.

Concrete has the following properties;
1. Workability
2. segregation
3. bleeding
4. strength
5. durability
6. permeability
7. shrinkage
8. creep
The above elements are sometimes referred to as properties of fresh concrete.
1.2.1 WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE:

Workability has different definitions/explanation by different Authors much as they mean the
same things.
According to American Society for Testing and Materials(ASTM) ‘Workability Is the property
of determining the effort required to manipulate a freshly mixed quantity of concrete with
minimum loss of homogeneity’.
What is homogeneity as referred to concrete?
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According to American Concrete Institute ACI (1905) ‘Workability is the property of freshly
mixed concrete or mortar which determines the ease and homogeneity with which it can be
mixed, placed, consolidated and finished.’
Outline ten processes in the design of ordinary concrete.

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1.2.2 SEGREGATION:
Is the separation of heavier particles of coarse aggregates (stones) from the fine aggregate (sand)
paste. During the process of placing concrete, the coarse aggregates settle at the bottom and the
fine aggregate paste remains on the top.
What are the causes of segregation?
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1.2.3 CONSISTENCY
According to “ACI”, consistency is the relative mobility of freshly mixed concrete or mortar to
flow. This is measured by a slump.
Describe the term slump.
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1.2.4 BLEEDING
Is the property of concrete where water tends to rise to the surface of the freshly placed concrete.
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How do you differentiate segregation from bleeding as used in concrete work?
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1.2.5 STRENGTH
Is the ability to resist the compression, tensile and the axial forces.
From tests of concrete cubes and cylinders, it has been found out that concrete has low tensile
strength (8 – 10 %) that of compression strength and minimal axial strength.
The compressive strength tests are usually done using concrete cubes or cylinders.
This measures the stress corresponding to the strain.
The graph of stress strain can explain.

1.2.6 DURABILITY
Is the property of concrete to maintain its required strength and serviceability period.
Concrete is said to be durable if it withstands the process of deterioration to which it can be
expected to be exposed.
What are the signs of deterioration?
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1.2.7 PERMEABILITY
Is the property that governs the rate of flow of fluid in a porous material.
Concrete should be designed to resist free/easy movement of fluids to improve on its strength
and durability.
1.2.8 CREEP
Is the deformation of a structure under a sustained load.
Both axial and bending deformations of reinforced concrete increase with time. This causes
the effect of creep in the system.
A graph of age (in months) against deformation can clearly reveal the details of the
deformation/deflections.
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At the initial application of load, an instantaneous deformation occurs. However, a time
dependent deformation continues at a decreasing rate for a period of years.
1.2.9 SHRINKAGE.
Is the reduction in the volume of concrete due to the loss of moisture in the concrete.
or
Is the shortening per unit length of concrete associated with the reduction in volume due to the
moisture loss.
1.3.0 TYPES OF CONCRETE:

Concrete can be categorized/classified by;
The virtue of the cementation/binding, materials and the design;
1.3.1 CEMENTATION MATERIAL;

By the cementation material these include;
1.3.1.0. LIME CONCRETE AND CEMENT CONCRETE.

Lime concrete: is constituted by lime, cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregates with
sufficient amount of water in the ratio of 1:2-3:3 - 4.
What are the advantages of using lime concrete?
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What are the disadvantages of using lime concrete?
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Cement concrete is made of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregates and sufficient amount
of water. The cement and the water are the reactive components while the aggregates and
sand are the non-reactive components. The cement helps in binding the materials and
hardening the structure. The aggregate sizes are 2.36mm - 4.75mm for fine/sand and 4.75mm
- 20mm for coarse aggregates.
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Cement concrete can be classified as plain concrete, reinforced cement concrete (RCC), pre-
stressed concrete and post-stressed concretes.
Using sketches illustrate plain concrete, reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete and post
stressed concrete.
1.3.1.1 PLAIN CONCRETES

Plain concretes are made of cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and sufficient amount
of water only. They are mainly used in the ground floors and precast slabs or where there is
no need of much strength. This type of concrete is good in compression but very weak in
tension.
1.3.1.2 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC).

This type of concrete is an improvement to the plain concrete by addition of reinforcements
such as tensile steel bars(twisted/ribbed) ranging from 6mm to 32mm diameters, steel metal
mesh fabric, metal lathes, BRCs etc. are embedded to acquire desired strength of the
concrete.
Describe the advantages of reinforced cement concrete over lime concretes
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What are the disadvantages of reinforced cement concrete
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What is the purpose of the sand in mix design of cement concrete?
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1.3.1.3 PRE-STRESSED
Are concretes where high compressive strength is induced by pre-tensioning the reinforcements
before placing/compacting the concrete. When the final setting time is over, the pre tensioned
bars are released.
ADVANTAGES OF PRE-STRESSED CONCRETES;
In this type of concrete, cracks are minimized. They are quite durable and resistant to fire.
What are the disadvantages of pre-stressed concrete?
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1.3.1.3 POST STRESSED

Differentiate a pre-stressed concrete and the post stressed concrete.
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1.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE:

Basing on the purpose of concretes, concretes can be classified as; Light weight concrete,
Cellular or Aerated concrete, Fiber reinforced concrete, Polymer concrete, Self-compacting
concrete, high early strength concrete and Roller compacted concrete
1.3.2.0 LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE

Normal plain concretes are dense with the density of 2400kg/m³ however light weight concretes
are made out of light weight aggregates of density varying from 1440 – 1840kg/m³. They are
used for precast structural units where light weights are required.
Describe the advantages of light weight concretes over dense concretes.
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The disadvantages light weight concretes are; Requires long batching/mixing, high porosity due
to the nature of the materials, It is difficult to give a good finish and normal curing is not
possible. It would be better to sprinkle over and again.
1.3.2.1 CELLULAR OR AERATED CONCRETE

This type of concrete is made by adding aluminum powder to the batched concrete. The powder
reacts to form air spaces and increases the mass of the batch. They are light and spongy in
structures. They are used in sound and heat installation structures. It is resistant to fire for good
period of time; however, the cost of production is high due to the cost of the aluminum powder.
It has Low compressive strength due to the nature of the materials used.
1.3.2.2 FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE

Normal concrete cannot resist tensional stresses. To improve these fibers are added to the
concrete to make it flexible. Steel fiber types include; Polypropylene, nylons, asbestos, coir,
glass and carbon. These type of concretes are used for the Construction of; road pavements,
industrial flooring, bridge decks, canal lining, precast concrete pipes, precast concrete stair case
and precast concrete beams. Their advantages include: high Flexibility of strength, high shearing
strength. The disadvantages of this type of concrete are; high cost of fibre, difficulty of
completion /finishing due to improper compaction.
1.3.2.3 POLYMER CONCRETE

Polymer concretes improves porosity and other strength properties because of the polymers used
in the mix. This type of concrete is used; in the Construction of pipes, storage tanks, large
transfer machines etc. they have better compressive strength, resistant to fire and Low
permeability. However, are quite expensive because of the cost of the polymers involved, It is
also difficult to give a better finish and contains sodium hydroxide that is harmful to human skin.
1.3.2.4 SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE

The concrete is placed and allowed to settle and compact itself to the required depth/thickness.
This type of concrete is best for bridges and retaining walls. They have better finish; no plasters
required and require less labor. However, they have high cost of materials and the choice of
constituent materials require special engineers.
1.3.2.5 HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CONCRETE

This type of concrete differs from the normal concrete by the time it takes to set and harden. In
this type of concrete, accelerators are used to speed up the hydration process. They are used for
under water works and in cold weather regions/conditions. The advantage of this type of
concrete is that the Strength increases with minimum time and high workability. However, it
requires low water cement ratio, requires material selection to be early enough and fast speed of
work.
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1.3.2.6 ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE
Roller compacted concrete, sometimes called roller concrete is a low-cement-content stiff
concrete placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is
placed on the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large heavy rollers typically
used in earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures over time into a strong
monolithic block. Roller compacted concrete is typically used for concrete pavement. Roller
compacted concrete dams can also be built, as the low cement content causes less heat to be
generated while curing than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete pours
1.4 AGGREGATES
LEARNING OUTPUT:
 Introduction
 Characteristics of quality aggregates
 Uses of aggregates
 Types of aggregates
 Production of aggregates, grading of aggregates
 Occurrence of aggregates
 Classification of aggregates
 Grading of aggregates/aggregate grading
 Bulking of sand
 BS testing for aggregates
 Storage of aggregates
1.4.0. INTRODUCTION TO AGGREGATES:

Aggregates is the term used to describe crushed rocks and sand which are mixed with cement
and limes and sufficient amount of clean drinkable water to form concrete which sets and
hardens into a solid mass. They are inert material of concrete that cannot pass a 4.75mmBS
sieve. Aggregates form a bulk volume of concrete; they are used as fillers.
Aggregates form 70-80% of the volume of the concrete, their impact on various characteristics
and properties of concrete is very important. To know about concrete, it is very important for one
to know in detail the behavior of the aggregates.
Without the study of aggregates in details, the study of concrete is incomplete.
List six reasons why an aggregate is mixed with cement in correct production.
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1.4.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY AGGREGATES:

i. STRENGTH: The aggregates should have adequate strength to resist abrasion and other
mechanical effects.
ii. DENSITY: The bulk density of natural dense aggregates various from 1450-1600kg/m³.
iii. SHRINKAGE: good aggregate should not shrink when used. Some aggregates such as
dolente and some sedimentary rocks shrink when used.
iv. CLEANLINESS: Aggregates should be free from impurities such as silt, mud, clay
among that may impart the quality and properties of the concrete.
v. SPECIFIC SURFACE: The larger the specific area of the aggregate particles, such as that
of the angularity of the aggregates, rough texture or high proportion of small particles, the
less workable the concrete will be. However, angularity and rough texture allow greater
adhesive force development.
vi. PARTICLE SHAPE: This is classified as rounded, irregular, and flaky elongated or flaky
and elongated. A good aggregate should have regular and rounded shapes.
vii. SURFACE TEXTURE: This is the roughness or smoothness of the aggregate surface.
viii. RESISTANCE TO IMPACT LOADS: A good aggregate should be able to resist impact
loads.
ix. RESISTANCE TO ABRASION: Good aggregates should be able to resist abrasion . That
is to say resistance of aggregates to wear and tear.
1.4.1. USES OF AGGREGATES.

To;
 Reduce materials costs: the aggregates are used as an extender.

 offset shrinkage: these may be either the drying shrinkage or setting expansion of the
binder,
 obtain increased or reduced density (by using high or low density aggregates
respectively)
 Alter the appearance such as color or texture.
 Obtain the better resistance to wear by abrasion or weathering.
 Impart some other special properties such as fire resistance, thermal insulation among
others.
1.4.3 OCCURRENCE OF AGGREGATES.

Aggregates normally occur in two ways:
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1. Natural aggregates: These are obtained in natural forms e.g. from uncrushed stones or
gravel and sand.
2. Artificial aggregates: These are man-made aggregates. They include crushed brick, blast
–furnace slag and numerous light weight and special aggregates.
1.4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES.

1.4.4.1 LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATES
These are aggregates composed of high porosity, which results in low bulk density.
These types of aggregates reduce the dead –weight of the structure, allowing the use of smaller
supporting members and foundations at reduced costs.
It also gives improved thermal insulations.
Examples are: Clinker, foamed furnace slag, pulverized fuel ash, expanded clay, shale slates,
perlite and vermiculite, pumice, diatomaceous earths, saw dust and wood fiber.
1.4.4.2 HEAVY WEIGHT AGGREGATES.
These are the aggregates that have high specific gravity implying that, they have high bulk
density.
They are mainly used for the purpose of screening radio activity, an important factor for the
effects of nuclear power.
Examples are normally those from mineral origins such as barites (bariums sulphate) and
hematite (an iron oxide). In addition to the metals iron and steel.
1.4.4.3 NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATE.

These are aggregates which are used for manufacture of normal weight structural concrete. They
are both natural and artificial aggregates.
1.4.4.4 GRADING OF AGGREGATES:

This is the process of proportioning the different sizes of the particles of the aggregates. It is
normally expressed as percentages by weight passing through various BS sieve.
These confirms that BS 410:1976 test sieves i.e. 50, 37.5, 20,14,10,5,2.36 and 1.18mm, 600mm
and 150mm.
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Figure 1 Particle Distribution of Aggregates
1.4.4.5 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF THE AGGREGATES.
This is the proportioning of the aggregate sizes using BS sieve analysis the terms used,
are:
FINE AGGREGATE:
This is the aggregate that passes through a 4.75mm BS sieve. Examples are sand, stones dust/
quarry dust or shingle.
COARSE AGGREGATE:
These are the aggregate that are retained on a fix 4.75mmBS sieve. Example are crushed stone,
crush bricks among others.
ALL-IN-AGGREGATE:
These are aggregate which contain all sizes of the aggregates i.e. both fine and
Coarse aggregates.
1.4.4.6 HOW TO CARRY –OUT SIEVE ANALYSIS ON AGGREGATES.

Sieve analysis is normally carried out by use of BS sieves which are normally arranged in order
normally ascending order (i.e. from the smallest to the biggest). This process can be done by
hand or by sieving machine. Analysis by sieve machine is always more preferable because it is
simple to carry out.
METHODS
Apparatus
1. BS sieves
2. Electronic scale
3. A sample of aggregate
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4. Sieve machine
Figure 1 Arranging BS Sieves figure 2 weighing Aggregates
PROCEDURE
1. Get a sample of aggregates and weigh it.
2. Get the weight of the BS sieves and also note the weight of the pan.
3. Arrange the BS sieve in ascending order (from the smallest to the biggest).
4. Put the sample of the aggregate in the BS sieves and close.
5. Put the BS sieves on the sieve machine and apply fixed them firm.
6. Apply the electronic power for at least 10mins to vibrate the sieve.
7. Note the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
8. Calculate the cumulative percentage passing and cumulative retained for each sieve .
9. Plot the results on the standard graph cause particle distribution sheet. This is done by plotting
the Cumulative percentage passing against the BS sieve sizes.
10.From graph you determine whether the aggregate is coarse or fine.
Using the below table of results, determine the grades of the aggregates.
WORKED EXAMPLES:
The tables 1 &2 below show sieve analysis carried out on course and fine aggregates
respectively.
Determine the following for each sieve:
1. Percentage retained.
2. Cumulative percentage retained.
3. Cumulative percentage passing.
TABLE 1. COARSE AGGREGATES.

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Weight Cumulative
BS Sieves retained(g) % Retained % Retained % Passing
38.1mm 0
19.05mm 15
9.50mm 285
4.76mm 176
2.40mm 24
1.20mm 0
600um 0
300um 0
150um 0
Passing no.
100 0
Total = 500
TABLE 2. FINE AGGREGATES.

Weight Cumulative
BS Sieves Retained(g) % Retained % Retained % Passing
38.1mm 0
19.05mm 0
9.50mm 0
4.76mm 5
2.40mm 20
1.20mm 38
600um 75
300um 63
150um 45
Passing no.
100 5
Total = 250
SOLUTION:
Weight Cumulative
BS Sieves retained(g) % Retained % Retained % Passing
38.1mm 0 0 0 100
19.05mm 15 15/500x100=3 3 100-3=97
9.50mm 285 285/500x100=57 57+3=60 100-60=40
4.76mm 176 176/500x100=35.2 35.2+60=95.2 100-95.2=4.8
19
2.40mm 24 24/500x100=4.8 4.8+95.2=100 100-100=0
1.20mm 0 0 100 0
600um 0 0 100 0
300um 0 0 100 0
150um 0 0 100 0
Passing no.100 -
Total = 500
TABLE 2. FINE AGGREGATES.

Weight Cumulative
BS Sieves Retained(g) % Retained % Retained % Passing
38.1mm 0 0 0 100
19.05mm 0 0 0 100
9.50mm 0 0 0 100
4.76mm 5 5/250x100=2 2 100-2=98
2.40mm 20 20/250x100=8 8+2=10 100-10=90
1.20mm 38 38/250x100=15 15+10=25 100-25=75
600um 75 75/250x100=30 30+25=55 100-55=45
300um 63 63/250x100=25 25+55=80 100-80=20
150um 45 45/250x100=18 80+18=98 100-98=2
Passing no.
100 5 5/250x100=2 2+98=100 100-100=0
Total = 250
1.4.4.7 BULKING OF SAND.

This is the increase of the density and volume of sand due to presence of moisture in the sand.
Thus when measuring sand by volume, allowance should be made to cater for bulking because
bulked sand occupies more volume than actual volume when dry.
1.4.4.8 BULKING TEST OF SAND.

APPARATUS:
20
 A flat –bottom cylindrical container.
 A steel ruler.
 A rod and a tray.
PROCEDURES OF BULK TEST OF A SAND.
1. Get a sample of loose sand normally damp sand.

2. Fill it into a cylindrical container to 2/3 of its capacity and record the depth D.
3. Tip the sand into the tray.
4. Half fill the cylindrical container and fill it with the damp sand at intervals while rodding
to displace air.
5. The depth, d, of this inundated sample is noted.
6. Bulking percentage is calculated from.
Bulking % = D-d x 100%
D
ALTERNATIVE METHOD: -
It can also be calculated moisture content and values of dry and damp bulk densities.
Bulking % = dry bulk density x (100 tn) -100%
n compacted damp bulk density.
Where n = % age moisture content of the damp sample.
Example:
Calculate the percentage bulking of a sample of sand to which the following test results apply.
Depth of same sand in un dated 160mm
Solution:
Bulking % = D-d x 100%
D
= 200-160x100% =4000%
160 160
=25%
1.4.4.9 PRODUCTION OF AGGREGATES.

PRODUCTION OF SAND AND GRAVEL AGGREGATES:
Sand and gravel are obtained either from pits or by dredging from the bottom of the rivers or
from the sea beds.
PRODUCTION OF CRUSHED STONES AGGREGATES:
21
The preparation of crushed stones aggregates is not as easy as that of gravel. The cover burden
must first be removed, the method depending on the formation of the surface of the rock.
The rock is next blasted and conveyed in lumps in trucks, overhead skips or by belt conveyors to
the crushing plant. The crushed rock is taken, usually by belt conveyors to the primary screen
which separates the material above and below 75mm. It is then passed the final screens, which
sorts it out into the various sizes required and that retained on 75mm primary screen is passed
through secondary crushers and again returned to the screens.
Six types of crusher are used for the production of crushed stone aggregate;
i. Jaw crushers consisting of one or more swing jaws operating against a fixed jaw, the
distance apart and the length of movement determining the ultimate size of the stone.
ii. Gyratory crushers in which a crushing head is rocked by an eccentric on the inclined
revolving shaft which carries it.
iii. Disc crushers comprising one stationary and one revolving saucer shaped disc open and
close as the material passes through.
iv. Hammer or impact crushers of various types.
Hammer crushers are subjected to considerable wear and maintains costs liable to be
heavy.
v. Roll crushers in which the crushing is affected by feeding the material between the
toothed, serrated or corrugated surface of one roll and the similar or smooth surface of the
other.
vi. Rod mills are replacing roll crushers for the reduction of finer being more economical,
and giving a more uniform product.
1.4.4.10 BRITISH STANDARD TESTS FOR AGGREGATES.

1. Particle shape: This is classified as rounded, irregular angular, flaky or flaky and elongated.
2. Surface texture: This is assessed as glassy, smooth, granular, rough, and crystalline or honey
combed.
3. Crushing strength: This can be carried out by determining potential value of a rock for crushed
aggregates.
This test can be carried –out by cylindrical specimens cut from the rock. They are crushed in a
Compression, in a compression testing machine.
Aggregate in bulk is tested by crushing it in a standard cylinder, with the load applied through a
close fitting plunger. Standard tests give the aggregate crushing value or the 10% finer value.
4. Aggregate impact value: This test measures an aggregates resistance to impact load, as distinct
from a gradually applied load.
5. Aggregate abrasion value: This test gives a measure of aggregates to wear by abrasion.
6. Laboratory determined polished stone value. This test allows a relative assessment of the
extent to which different aggregates will polish, and so become slippery under traffic.
7. Flakiness index by thickness gauge.
22
8. Elongation index method by length gauge.
This is the percentage of particles in a sample with a length exceeding 1.8m times their mean
sieve.
9. Angularity number. This test relates the shape of single sized aggregate particles to spherical
of Particles of the same mean size, by measuring the extent to which they occupy the space
inside a cylindrical container into which they are picked.
Angularity number = 67-100WCxG

Where W is the weight of the aggregate to fill the container (g)
C is the capacity of the cylinder (cm³).
G is the aggregates specific gravity (oven –dried basis).
10. The bulk density: As discussed before.
11. Organic impurities in fine aggregates. This is a laboratory testing involving the determination
of the PH value of a prepared cement mortar containing the aggregates.
12. Silt content.
1.4.4.11 STORAGE OF AGGREGATES:

Aggregates should not be stored under the tree shades as the leaves will drop on the aggregate
which later decompose into manure.
It should not be packed directly on the ground but on a hard flat form made of concrete.
2.12 WATER AND CONCRETE MIX DESIGN:

Water is a clean colorless and odorless fluid material used for as one of the material for
producing concrete.
FUNCTIONS OF WATER IN THE PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
QUALITY OF WATER FOR MIXING A CONCRETE.
Water used for both mixing and curing should be free from impurities. Clean drinkable water is
generally considered satisfactory for mixing and curing of concrete.
Some drinkable water contains some impurities that may impact the properties of the fresh
concrete and its workability e.g. chlorine.
As a guide, the following concentrations represent the maximum permissible values.
a. To neutralize 200ml sample, it should not require more than 2ml of 0.1 Normal NaoH.
23
b. To neutralize 200ml sample, it should not require more than 10ml 0.1 Normal NCL (Water
guard)
c. Percentage of the solids should not exceed the following:
SOLIDS %AGE (100%)
Organic 0.02
Inorganic 0.30
Sulphates 0.35
Alkali chlorides 0.10
WATER CEMENT RATIO: -

Water cement ratio: Is the ratio of volume of water to volume of cement used in the concrete.
The strength and durability and workability of concrete depend to the greater extent on the
amount of water used.
For a given proportion of the materials, there is an amount of water which gives the greatest
strength.
Less amount of water decreases the strength and about 10% less may be insufficient to ensure
complete setting of cement. Similarly, more than the optimum water increases the workability
but decrease the strength.
Cement requires about 1/5 to ¼ of its weight of water to become completely hydrated.
Some practical values of water –cement ration for structural reinforced concrete are about:
0.45 for 1:1:2 concrete.
0.50 For 1:1½:3 concrete.
0.55-0.60 for 1:2:4 concrete.
WCR = WS+WM
WC
Where, WS = water on the surface of the aggregates, WM = water used during the mix and WC
= water in the concrete.
1.4.4.12 AGGREGATE CEMENT RATIO.

It is the ratio of volume of aggregate (fine and coarse aggregates) to the volume of cement used.
Aggregate cement ratio takes the highest percentage of concrete.
The strength and durability of hardened concrete depends largely on the aggregate cement ratio.
As such care should be taken during proportion of materials for the concrete.
Aggregate: cement ratio = volume of aggregates/.
Volume of cement. Or aggregate: cement ratio = weight of aggregate/
Weight of cement.
24
UNIT 2 CEMENTS:
CONTENT:
Types of cements, Manufacture of cements, admixtures. )
Water: water/ cement ration and workability.
2.0 CEMENT.
This is the most important binder. In concrete it reacts exothermically with water to form a hard
strong mass having extremely low solubility. This is changed in the physical property due to
chemical reaction between cement and water, a process called hydration
2.1 HISTORY OF CEMENT:

The term “Portland cement” was first used in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, a British cement-maker,
because of the resemblance between concrete made from his cement and Portland stone, which
was commonly used in building in Britain.
25
The first modern Portland cement, made from lime and clay materials heated until they formed
clinkers was produced by Isaac Charles Johnson in Britain in 1845.
At that time cements were usually made in upright kilns where the raw materials were spread
between layers of coke, which was then burnt.
The first rotary kilns were introduced about 1880. Portland cement is now almost universally
used for structural concrete.
2.3 MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT.

The process of manufacturing cement involves the following process;
1. The cement manufacturing process begins when limestone, the basic raw material used to
make cement, is transported from the limestone quarry to the crusher.
2. The lime stone is combined with clay, ground in a crusher and fed into the additives silos.
sand, iron and bottom ash are then combined with the limestone and clay in a carefully
controlled mixture which is ground into a fine powder in a roller mill.
3. Next, the fine powder is heated as it passes through the pre-heater tower in a large kiln, in
the kiln, the powder is heated to 1500 degrees Celsius. this create a new product, called
clinker, which resembles pellets about marbles
4. The clinker is combined with small amounts of gypsum and limestone and finely ground in
a finishing mill. The mill is a large revolving cylinder containing 250 tons of still balls that
is driven by a 4000HP motor. The finished cement is ground so fine that it can pass through
a sieve that will hold water.
GROUP ASSIGNMENT
1. State the two processes that are used in manufacturing cement.
2. Explain the two processes above using illustrative diagram.
26
2.4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT.
Oxide Composition of Portland Cement
Portland cement is composed of four major oxides: lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3),
and iron (Fe2O3).
Also Portland cement contains small amount of magnesia (MgO), alkalies (Na2O and
K2O), and sulfuric anhydrite (SO3).
APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION LIMITS OF OXIDES IN PORTLAND CEMENT

Oxide Common Name Content, %
CaO Lime 60-67
SiO2 Silica 17-25
27
Al2O3 Alumina 3-8
Fe2O3 Iron 0,5-6
MgO Magnesia 0,1-4
Na2O and Alkalies 0,2-1,3
K2O Sulfuric 1-3
SO3 anhydride
2.5 COMPONENT OF ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT [OPC].
2.5.1 MAIN CONSITUTENTS IN ATYPICAL PORTLAND CEMENT.

chemical name chemical shorthand percent by weight
formula notation
TRICALCIUM SILICATE 3CAO XSIO2 C3S 50
DICACALCIUM SILICATE 2CAO X SIO3 C2S 25
TRICALCIUM 3CaOXAL203 C3A 12
ALUMINATE
TERACALCIUM 4CAOXAL203XFe20 C4AF 8
ALUMINOFERRITE
GYPSUM CaSO4XH20 CSH2 3.5
2.6 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

when port land cement is mixed with water it`s chemical compound constituent under goes series
of chemical reactions that cause it to harden [or set]. these chemical reactions all involve the
addition of water to the basic chemical compound listed in table 1.1. This chemical reaction with
water is called “hydration”. Each one of these reactions occurs at different time and rate.
Together, the results of this reaction determine how Portland cement hardens and gains strength.
TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE [C3S].
Hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early strength. Portland
cements with higher percentage s of C3S will exhibit higher early strength.
DI-CALCIUM SILICATE [C2S]
Hydrates and hardens slowly and is largely responsible for strength and increases beyond one
week.
28
TRI-CALCIUM ALUMINATES [C3A]
Hydrates and hardens the quickest. Liberates large amount of heat almost immediately and
contribute some water to early strength. Gypsum is added to Portland cement to retard C 3A
hydration would cause Portland cement to set almost immediately after adding water.
This is known as flash set .it`s control by adding gypsum 2%-3% by weight of OPC clinker to
cement clinker.
ADVANTAGE OF TRI-CALCIUM ALUMINATES [C3A]
I. It acts as afflux, reducing the burning temperature of clinker, which results in serving of
fuel.
II. Low amount of [C3A], generate less heat and develops ultimately high strength.
DISADVANTAGES
i. High quantity causes high rate of heat development and this causes cracks in concrete.
ii. It may react with sulphates forming sulphate-Aluminate; process called sulphate attack.
TETRA CALCIUM ALUMINOFERRITE [C4AF]
Hydrates rapidly but contributes very title to strength .it`s use allows lower kiln temperature in
Portland cement manufacturing. Most Portland cement color effect is due to C4AF.
2.7 TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

TABLE1.2: ASTM TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT
NAMES POURPOSE
Normal OPC General cement suitable for most purposes
Normal-air entraining An air- entraining modification of type one
Moderate sulphate Used as a precaution against moderate sulfate attack. it will

resistance usually generate less heat at a slower rate than type one cement
Moderate sulfate resistance- An air entraining modification of type two

Air entraining
High Early strength Used when high early strength is needed. it has more C3S then
type 1 cement and has been ground finer to provide higher surface
29
to volume ratio, both of which speed hydration. strength gain is
double that of type one cement in the first 24 hours
High early strength- air An air entraining modification of type III

entraining
Low heat hydration Used when hydration heat must be minimizing in large volume
application such as gravity dams. contains about half the C 3S and
C3A and double the C2S OF type I cement.
High sulphate resistance Used as a precaution against severe sulfate action principally
where soils or ground water have high-water have high sulfate
content. it gains strength at a slower rate than type I cement. high
sulfate resistance is attributable to low C3A content.
2.8 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

FINENESS
Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement affect hydration rate and thus the rate of strength
gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area –to-volume ratio, and thus, the
more area available for water –cement interaction per unit volume. The effect of greater fineness
on strength are generally seen during the first seven days [PCA, 1988]
ADVANTAGES OF FINE CEMENT
Greater rate of hydration.
Rapid and greater strength development.
Less bleeding.
Better workability.
DIS ADVANTAGES OF VERY FINE CEMENT
Rapid deterioration on exposure to the atmosphere.
High possibility of shrinkage and cracking.
For a standard consistency of cement paste a greater amount of water is required.

30
SOUNDNESS
When referring to Portland cement, “soundness” refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste
to retain. Its volume after setting without delayed decorative expansion [CPA, 1988]. This
destructive expansion is caused by excessive amount of free lime [CaO] or magnesia [MgO].
most Portland cement specification limit magnesia content and expansion. The typical expansion
test places a small sample of cement paste into an autoclave [a high pressure steam vessel]. The
autoclaves is slowly brought to 2.03MPa [295 psi] then kept at the pressure for 3 hours. the is
then slowly brought back to room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The change in
specimen length due to its time in the autoclave is measured and reported as percentage. ASTM
C 150, standard specification for Portland cement specifies a maximum autoclave expansion of
0.80 percent for all Portland cement types.
SETTING TIME
Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including
Cement fineness, Water-cement ratio, Chemical content [especially gypsum content]and

Admixtures.
setting test are used to characterize how a particular cement paste sets. for construction purposes,
the initial set must not be too soon and the final set must not be too late. Additionally, setting
time s can give some indication of whether or not a cement is undergoing normal hydration
[PCA, 1988]. Normally, two setting time are defining [mindess and young, 1981]
1- Initial set. occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably.
2-Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some load.
These particular times are arbitrary point used to characterize cement; they do not have any
fundamental chemical significance. Both common setting time test s, the Vicat needle and the
Gilmore needle, define initial set and final set base on the time at which a needle for particular
size and weight either penetrates a cement paste sample to a given depth or fails to penetrate a
cement paste sample. The Vicat needle test is more common and tends to give shorter times than
the Gilmore needle test. Table 1.3 shows ASTMC 150 specified set times.
31
SPECIFIED SET TIMES BY TEST METHOD
Test method Set type Time Specification

Vicat initial 45 minutes
final 375 minutes
initial 60 minutes
Gilmore
final 600 minutes
FALSE
This is the abnormal premature stiffening of cement paste in few minutes after adding water. It is
caused by:
Adding of gypsum and inter-grinding with very hot clinker: This causes dehydration of gypsum
and lime hydrate (CaSO40.0.5H20) is formed or hydrate ACaS04 addition of water the hydrate
forms gypsum, resulting into stiffening of paste.
Aeration of tri-calcium caused false set in cement at moderately high temperature.
STRENGTH
Cement paste strength is typically defined in three ways: compressive, tensile and flexural. These
strengths. These strengths can be affected by a number of items including:
water-cement ratio
cement-fine aggregate ratio
2.9 HEAT OF HYDRATION

The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland cement react. Heat of
hydration is most influenced by the proportion of C3S and C3A in the cement, but is also
influenced by water-cement ratio, and fineness, and curing temperature. in a large mass concrete
structures such as gravity dams, hydration heat is produced significantly faster than it can be
dissipated (especially in the center of the large concrete masses), which can create high
temperature in the center of these large concrete masses that in turn, may cause undesirable
stresses as the concrete cools to maintain favorable curing temperatures during winter
(PCA,1988).
LOSS ON IGNITION
32
Loss on ignition is calculated by heating up a cement sample to 90-1000 oC (1650 – 1830oF) until
a constant weight is obtained. The weight loss of the sample is due to heating is then determined.
a high loss of ignition can
Indicate pre-hydration and carbonation, which may be caused by improper and prolonged storage
or adulteration during transport or transfer (PCA, 1988).
2.30 PRECAUTIONS TAKEN DURING STORAGE OF CEMENT

 Walls of the ware house should be made of water proof concrete masonry or plastered
brick work on both faces.
 Roofs made of reinforced concrete should be provided with water proof treatment so that
no leakage or seepage takes place.
 Floor thickness should be more than 150mm. the floor should be preferably made of
cement concrete on a dry course of brick soiling
 the plinth wall level of the ware house should be such that a track can back conveniently
to the door for lording and of lording
 for newly build ware house it should be ensured that it`s thoroughly dry from the interior
at the time of storage of cement
 cement bag should not be piled touching the walls, but a 300mm stretch should be left
between the wall and the cement
 cement should not be place directly on the floor, but on wooden plunks, unless it`s made
of concrete and is fully dry.
 the space between the bag should be left in order to reduce air circulation in the store
 if more than 7 bags are to piled in a struck, arrange them alternatively as header and
stretcher
 the store should have a minimum number of openings to minimize air circulation
 Not more than 15 bags should be piled in a stack. maximum width of the stack should be
not more than 3m
2.31 FIELD TEST FOR CEMENT

 the color but pure cement should be uniformly gray
 when rubbed between the thumb and forefinger, it should feel smooth , grittiness
shows adulteration
 small cement thrown into bucket of water should float if it`s of good quality. if it sinks
it mean it contains impurities
 it should not feel oily when touched
 Any lump of cement should break when pressed between thumb and forefinger. if it
does not break .it means that it has developed air set
 if a hand is put into cement bag, it should feel cool and not warm.
33
UNIT 3 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
CONTENT
Batching of Aggregates, a, Cement and water, mixing and transporting concrete, Preparation of
and joints: placement of concrete, compaction of concrete, curing of concrete and surface
finishing.
Form work Reinforcement, concrete mixing plant.
Protecting concrete, concrete in hot weather, concrete in cold weather, concreting in wet
condition. Shrinkage, cracking creep
BATCHING OF CONCRETE INGREDIENTS
This is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either by volume or by mass and
introducing them into the mixture. Traditionally batching is done by volume but most
specifications require that batching be done by mass rather than volume
WATER FOR CONCRETE
Water for concrete making has the following functions.
Hydration of cement.
Conversion of cement into paste
Making the concrete workable
Wetting the aggregate particles
The water must not contain impurities which might adversely affect the hardening and durability
of concrete Examples of such impurities includes organic acids, sugars, salts, sulphates and
chlorides.
Water for concrete making should not be allowed to become contaminated by storing in dirty
containers or leaving the containers open to contamination especially on sites
CEMENT FOR CONCRETE
Normally ordinary Portland cement satisfying the requirement of British standard is used.
However, for special conditions the type of cement satisfying the condition requirement is used.
Cement, being hygroscopic, attracts moisture quickly and sets. So storage of cement should be
carefully attended to and no set or even partially set cement should be used
WATER CEMENT RATIO
34
It the ratio of water and cement (by volume or weight) used in preparation of concrete.
The quantity of water used in the mix is very important. If the percentage of water used is less,
then there shall not be sufficient quantity of water to hydrate cement. It shall result in porous and
weak concrete. However, the tendency is to use too much water which gives a more workable
mix but does not give concrete. Too much water results in segregation of aggregates and gives
porous concrete of low strength and low density. A certain minimum proportion of water is
necessary in order to hydrate the cement completely. To make the concrete sufficiently workable
to be placed in position some more water is needed.
Water cement ratio should not be allowed to exceed the specified limits for various types of
concrete and should generally be kept as low as the method of placing will allow. The law of
professor Abraham states that “with given materials and conditions of test, the ratio of quantity
of mixing water to the quantity of cement alone determines the strength of concrete so long as
the mix of a workable plasticity. “This known as water cement ratio law
According to this law the strength of concrete will not increase by simply increasing the quantity
of cement unless the water cement ratio is reduced
A simple and practical way of controlling the water content is means of slump test as explained
below
WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
It is the amount of work required to place the concrete and to compact it thoroughly.
It is the property of concrete which depends on how easy fresh concrete can be mixed,
transported, placed and compacted and finished without segregation and bleeding
What Factors affect workability of concrete?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
CONCRETE CONSISTENCY:
Consistency is a general term that is related to the relative fluidity of concrete and is an
indication of the amount of mixed water to the amount of dry materials. Workability is an
indication of the ease with which concrete can be placed in shape or location. The different
pieces of equipment we offer for determining Consistency and Workability are as follows:
SEGREGATION:
35
DEFINITION:
It is described by as follows: "Segregation in concrete is commonly thought as separation of

some size groups of aggregates from cement mortar in isolated locations with corresponding
deficiencies of these materials in other locations. Segregation results in proportions of the laid
concrete being in variation to those as designed. Segregation could result from internal factors
such as concrete that is not proportioned properly and not mixed adequately, or too workable a
mix. It also could result from external factors such as too much vibration, improper
transportation, placement, or adverse weather conditions.
The corresponding increase in proportion of cement paste in upper areas would tend to make
them susceptible to increased shrinkage and formation of cracks. These cracks could be 10 µm to
500 µm wide, formed perpendicular to the surface, and be in the form of map patterns.
BLEEDING
Concrete bleeding, one of these failures “is a form of segregation where some of the water in the
concrete tends to rise to the surface of the freshly placed material”. Bleeding is primarily the
result of a too high water saturation level in the mixture, such that the aggregate particles cannot
absorb the excess moisture. Instead of soaking into the rocks and sand, the water floats up
towards the surface of the recently poured concrete because it has the lowest density of all the
ingredients in the mix
MIXING AND TRANSPORTING CONCRETE
INTRODUCTION
The successful placement of concrete is dependent upon careful mixing, the proper equipment,
and adequate transportation. This site will define, analyze, and demonstrate the importance of
each in the overall process of placing concrete.
BATCHING AND MIXING CONCRETE
Mixing concrete is simply defined as the "complete blending of the materials which are required
for the production of a homogeneous concrete" (Young, 267). This can vary from hand to
machine mixing, with machine mixing being the most common.
However, no successful mixture can be achieved without the proper batching of all materials.
Batching is the "process of weighing or volumetrically measuring and introducing into the mixer
the ingredients for a batch of concrete" (Kosmatka, 94). Quality assurance, suitable arrangement
of materials and equipment, and correct weighing of the materials are the essential steps that
must be completed before any mixing takes place.
36
The types and volume of materials, the mix design, and the end result (i.e. strength) are normally
provided in the design specifications. The design specifications must be consulted before any
batching or mixing takes place
COMPONENTS OF MIXING
There are many components of mixing that need to be considered in order to ensure that a
uniform concrete mixture can be achieved. Location, shape and angle of the mixing blades,
shape of the mixing chamber, speed of rotation, and horsepower must all be taken into account.
It is paramount that each batch is consistently mixed to design specifications so the concrete’s
final strength is not compromised
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MIXERS
There are essentially three classifications of mixers: the drum mixer, pan mixer, and continuous
mixer. Each of these mixers
can be further classified as batched or continuous, free-falling or forced movement, and

stationary or portable.
MIXING TIME
Once the appropriate mixer has been chosen, it is necessary to determine the mixing time. This is
the duration of
time it takes to mix concrete, once the mixer is fully charged with all the materials.
Charging is an important step
because it gives the materials an opportunity to pre-blend. The type and condition of
the mixer, speed of rotation,
size of the charge, and nature of the materials all determine the correct mixing time.
The mixing time is not
standard for each batch. For example, a drum mixer with a small diameter creates a
greater velocity than a drum
mixer with a large diameter, therefore, the mixing time would be decreased.
However, if the goal is stiffer
concrete, a longer mixing time is required.
TRANSPORTING CONCRETE
Transporting the concrete mix is defined as the transferring of concrete from the mixing plant to
the construction site. Keep in mind that not all concrete is mixed on the actual construction site
and could require some significant travel. This is most common for ready-mixed concretes. The
main objective in transporting concrete is to ensure that the water-cement ratio, slump or
consistency, air content, and homogeneity are not modified from their intended states
37
IMPORTANT FACTORS IN CHOOSING TRANSPORTATION
There are many elements of transporting that need to be considered in order to ensure that a mix
does not change its state as specified in the contract. The two key goals when transporting
concrete from the mixing plant to the construction site are to prevent segregation and to not
reduce the workability of the mix. This transportation process must be well thought out and
organized efficiently. As a general rule of thumb, thirty to sixty minutes of transportation are
acceptable on small jobs. At a central or portable ready-mix plant, concrete should be discharged
from a truck mixer or agitator truck within two hours. If non-agitating transporting equipment is
used, this time is reduced to one hour. All delays must be avoided in order prevent
honeycombing
Many factors determine which type of transportation is most suitable. Type and constituents of
the concrete mix, size and type of construction, topography, weather conditions (i.e. temperature,
humidity, wind speed), location of the batch plant, and cost are all taken into consideration when
choosing a mode of transport for your concrete. If you choose the wrong mode of transportation,
your concrete could be segregated, which would in effect, make it useless. Therefore, it is
essential that adequate thought be given to the type of transportation you actually need.
CATEGORIES OF TRANSPORTATION
There are many modes of transportation as shown below:
Wheelbarrow or motorized buggy, Truck mixer, Bucket or steel skip, Chute, Belt conveyor,
Concrete pump and Pneumatic placer
CONCRETE PLACING AND COMPACTION
The operation of placing and compaction are independent and carried out simultaneously. They
are most important for the purpose of ensuring the requirements of strength, impermeability and
durability of hardened concrete in actual structure. In placing segregation should avoided and be
fully compacted. The aim of good concrete placing can be stated as to get the concrete into
position at the speed, and in condition, that allow it to be compacted properly
To achieve the proper placing following rules should be kept in mind:
The concrete should be placed in uniform layers, not large heaps or sloping layers
The thickness of the layer should be compatible with the method of vibration so that the
entrapped air can be removed from the bottom of each layer
The rate of placing and compaction should be equal. If you proceed too slowly, the mix could
stiffen so that it is no longer sufficiently workable. On no account should water ever be added to
concrete that is setting. On other hand, if you go so quickly, you might race ahead of the
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compacting gang, making it impossible them, making it impossible for them to do their job
properly.
Each layer should be fully compacted before placing the next one, and each subsequent layer
should be placed whilst the under lying layer is still plastic so that monolithic construction is
achieved
Collisions between concrete and framework or reinforcement should be avoided.
For deep sections, a long down pipe ensures accuracy of location of concrete and minimum
segregation.
You must be able to see that the placing is proceeding correctly, so lightly should be available
for large, deep section and thin walls and columns.
COMPACTION
Once the concrete has been placed, it is ready to be compacted. The purpose of compaction is to
get rid of the air voids that are trapped in loose concrete.
WHY IS COMPACTION OF CONCRETE NECESSARY
It is important to compact the concrete fully because:
Air avoid reduce the strength of the concrete. For every one 1% of entrapped air, the strength
falls by somewhere between 5 and 7% This means that concrete containing a mere 5% air 5% air
voids due to incomplete compaction can lose as much as one third of its strength.
Air voids increase concrete’s permeability. That in turn reduce is durability. If concrete is not
dense and impermeable, it will not be watertight. It will be less able to withstand aggressive
liquids' and it`s exposed surfaces will weather badly.
Moisture and air are m0re likely to penetrate to reinforcement causing to rust Air voids impair
contacts between the mix and reinforcement (and any other embedded metals). The required
bond will not be achieved and the reinforced member will not be as strong as it should be.
Air voids produced blemishes on struck faces. i.e. blowholes and honeycombing might occur
METHODS OF COMPACTION OF CONCRETE
VIBRATION
This may have carried out by using a tamping rod if the concrete is being used in a wall or
column; or a tempting board if it is being laid in a slab, unless special care is taken, it is different
to ensure that the concrete is fully compacted when it is being done by hand. Therefore, it is
39
much more satisfactory to use machines. These are called vibrators, and as their names suggests,
they vibrate very rapidly and settle the concrete with a high degree of compaction.
Vibrator may be of their internal type consisting of a poker at the end of flexible drive and
operated from an electric, diesel or petrol motor. The poker is immersed in the concrete at
intervals, and once the air bubbles cease to rise, vibration should stop at that place. Another type
of vibrator is clamped to the framework and the vibration is operated from the outside of the
concrete. This is very efficient, but the framework must be strong enough to resist the vibration.
The electric hummer is a simple type of vibrator which is also used on the outside of the frame-
work. This type is not, however, quite as efficient as the two previously mentioned.
CURING OF CONCRETE
Curing concrete is the term used for stopping freshly poured concrete from drying out too
quickly. This is done because concrete, if left to dry out of its own accord, will not develop the
full bond between all of its ingredients. It will be weaker and tend to crack more. The surface
won't be as hard as it could b
METHODS OF CURING CONCRETE
LEAVE THE FORM WORK USED TO CREATE THE CONCRETE FORMATION.
The form work itself, if left in place, or on the underneath of a suspended slab, or around a
concrete column will stop the concrete drying out too quickly, and so can be said to be a curing
agent
USE PONDING
This is done by forming a dam wall of sand around the concrete formation and then flooding
with water. This method has the following disadvantages: It takes a fair bit of work to do, and
then quite often a breach occurs and the water runs off the slab.
Usually this can only be done for a few days as it inhibits other work and the pressure is usually
on to get the walls up.
A possible drawback of this method, especially if soil or clay is used, is the chance of staining
the concrete
Plastic sheeting
This material prevents the moisture already contained in the concrete from escaping into the
air .taking necessary care so that the sheeting is not blown away by wind. This is a very effective
curing material.
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Hessian or matting
After the concrete has been placed into position, these materials are used to cover it. The hessian
or mats are wetted before placing, the arm being to keep water in close contact with the concrete
until normal setting takes place.
CURING COMPOUNDS
There now exist membrane curing compounds marketed under various names which offer
specialized ways of ways of keeping moisture inside the concrete until normal setting is achieved
They are usually applied 15 to 30 minutes after finishing the concrete. They are widely used in
road works.
SAND LAYER
Sometimes a thin layer of sand is used to cover the surface of the concrete. The drawback in this
method is that one must necessarily wait until the concrete has achieved some considerable
setting before the sand is spread over it, to avoid coursing bruises to the surface, or embedding
the surface with sand.
WATER SPRAY
Where there is an ample supply of water, a hose pipe could be used to spray the concrete with
water, keeping it moist for days. While this is an excellent method of curing, water shortages in
many areas usually preclude its use.
PERIOD OF CURING
The period during which concrete must be cured is specified by the engineer.
Generally, the curing time is the period for which the concrete must remain covered or moistened
and must not be taken to mean the period after which the concrete can be put to use, or the time
before the concrete will have all supports removed. These periods should also be specified.
FINISHES APPLIED TO CONCRETE
Exposed concrete surfaces are often either painted or left as cast. Painting requires periodic
renewal especially in dusty condition such as occur in tropical countries. It is, however, possible
to give concrete surface a pleasant appearance without painting. This can be achieved by one of
the following means.
EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISHES

41
This is achieved by removing the fine aggregate mechanically from the concrete surface to
expose the larger aggregate. This produces a rugged natural appearance.
APPLIED FINISHES
These include plastering and painting, Tyrolean and spatter dash. These finishes are applied in
accordance with mixes and methods specified by the architect.
BOARD MARKED FINISH
A variety of attractive finishes can be obtained by using rough sawn timber for the sides of the
concrete formwork
Another appearance can be obtained by chamfering the edges of the individual planks. This
leaves continuous small projections on the surface of the concrete.
One can also fix cleats to the internal face of the formwork to obtain the reverse feature.
Alternatively corrugated metal sheets can be used. They come off easily and leave a beautiful
finish on the concrete.
BOARD LINING
Various materials, such as ribbed hardboard, coconut mat, plastic sheeting, hessian specially
shaped plastic panels, can be attached to the inner face of the formwork to produce different
attractive surface finish.
FORMWORK AND MOULDS
Formwork is an ancillary construction, used as a mould for a structure. Into this mould, fresh
concrete is placed only to harden subsequently. The construction of formwork takes time and
involves expenditure up to 20 to 25% of the cost of the structure or even more. Design of these
temporary structures are made to economic expenditure. The operation of removing the
formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable forms are known as
panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms. timber is the most common material
used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink.
Application of water impermeable cost to the surface of wood mitigates these defects.
A GOOD FORMWORK SHOULD SATISFY THE FOLLOWING REQUIREMENTS:
It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape.
The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
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Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences without
damage to the concrete.
The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for reuse.
The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane surface.
ECONOMY IN FORMWORK
It should be;
As light as possible, not warp or get distorted when exposed to the elements, be on firm base, be
well-seasoned, light in weight, easily workable with nails without splitting, free from loose
knots, have smooth and even surface on all faces which come in contact with concrete.
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMWORK:
This normally involves the following operations:
Propping and centering, Shuttering, Provision of camber, Cleaning and surface treatment
ORDER AND METHOD OF REMOVING FORMWORK:
The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:
Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be removed first
as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be removed
in the end.
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DETAILS OF TIMBER FORMWORK FOR RCC BEAM AND SLAB FLOOR
COLUMN FORMWORK
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UNIT 4 CONCRETE STRUCTURE REPAIRS
CONTENT:
Concrete for Road construction
Piles, fluid retaining structures,
Pre-cast concrete products, floors and floor surfaces
CONCRETE FOR ROADS
Asphalt roads wear more than concrete roads, but many countries are replacing concrete roads
with asphalt because it is cheaper, despite concrete roads having some major advantages. Learn
about the advantages and disadvantages of the different road paving surfaces in this article.
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In most Developed Nations in almost all the new major road construction use concrete rather
than asphalt these days.
ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE ROADWAYS
DURABILITY AND MAINTENANCE FREE LIFE:
Concrete roads have a long service life of forty years, whereas asphalt roads last for ten years.
Moreover, during this service life concrete road do not require frequent repair or patching work
like asphalt roads.
VEHICLES CONSUME LESS FUEL:
A vehicle, when run over a concrete road, consumes 15-20% less fuel than that on asphalt roads.
This is because of the fact that a concrete road does not get deflected under the wheels of loaded
trucks.
RESISTANT TO AUTOMOBILE FUEL SPILLAGE AND EXTREME WEATHER:
Unlike asphalt roads, concrete roads do not get damaged by the leaking oils from the vehicles or
by the extreme weather conditions like excess rain or extreme heat.
GREENER PROCESS:
Asphalt (bitumen) produces lots of highly polluting gases at the time of melting it for paving.
Also, less fuel consumption by the vehicle running on a concrete road means less pollution.
SAVING OF NATURAL RESOURCES:
Asphalt (bitumen) is produced from imported petroleum, the reserve of which is becoming
reduced drastically. On the other hand, concrete (cement) is produced from abundantly available
limestone.
DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE ROADWAYS
PAVING COST:
The paving cost of the concrete road is little higher compared to asphalt paving.
MAINTENANCE PROBLEM:
In case the concrete road breaks, the whole concrete slab needs to be replaced.
SAFETY FEATURES:
In rainy and the winter season vehicles tend to slip or slide on concrete road due to rain and
snow.
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ADVANTAGES OF ASPHALT (BITUMEN) ROAD
ECONOMICAL:
Asphalt is still less costly compared to concrete. Moreover, it takes less time to build a asphalt
road than a concrete road. (Asphalt dries faster.)
RECYCLABLE:
Asphalt is a recyclable material. It can be used again and again by melting it.
EASY MAINTENANCE:
Repairing just a part of the asphalt road is easily possible. Asphalt roads even can be relayed
over the old layer.
SAFE:
Asphalt roads provide better traction and skid resistance for vehicles. Asphalt tends to help keep
roads free from ice and snow.
DISADVANTAGES OF ASPHALT (BITUMEN) ROAD:
DURABILITY:
heavy rain and other extreme weather conditions damage the asphalt road, and the roads need to
be repaired frequently.
WEATHER POLLUTION:
Melting asphalt produces lots of harmful greenhouse gases. Also costly petroleum is required to
produce asphalt.
CONCLUSION
Concrete roads are highly durable and more environmentally friendly as compared to asphalt
roads. However, asphalt paving costs far less than concrete paving. Also, asphalt road provides a
little better safety of the vehicle against snow and skidding.
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UNIT 5 CONCRETE PRODUCTION PRACTICE:
CONTENT:
Concrete Mix, Concrete Curing,
Fresh Concrete Tests.
Testing of Dry Samples.
CONCRETE MIX, CONCRETE CURING,
Using the notes on concrete mix design, write short notes on concrete mixing and curing.
TEST FOR WORKABILITY

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FRESH CONCRETE TESTS
SLUMP TEST
TEST APPARATUS
16mm diameter tamping rod
A cone frustum 305mm high.
Hard flat surface
TEST PROCEDURE.
Put the mould on the flat base.
Smear oil on the internal surface of the mould so that concrete not stick on the internal surface of
the mould.
Fill the mould in three layers, and in each case, each layer is tamped with a 16mm diameter
tamping rod 25 times.
Struck off the top surface by means of screeding action or rolling motion of the tamping rod or
by means of a trowel.
Lift the mould slowly upwards to allow the concrete to slump the difference in level of the
concrete is measured as the slump.
Typical slumps
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50
Grading of the slump
25-50mm the workability is very low: used in mass concrete, which are not heavily reinforced
50-100mm: medium workability; used for normal concrete work
100-150mm: High workability; used for highly reinforced concrete
THE COMPACTING FACTOR TEST
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of two hoppers each in the shape of the frustum of the cone and one
cylinder, the three being above one another. The hoppers have hinged doors at the bottom.
TEST PROCEDURE
The upper hopper is filled gently with concrete so that no compaction is done on the concrete.
The bottom door of the hopper is opened so that the concrete falls to the lower hopper.
The bottom door of the lower is opened so that concrete fall in the cylinder.
The excess concrete on the cylinder is struck off and the net weight of the concrete in the known
volume of the cylinder is determined.
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The density of concrete in the cylinder is calculated and divided by density of fully compacted
concrete. This result obtained is known as compaction factor
densityoftestedconcrete
Compaction factor =
densityoffullycompactedconcrete
GRADING OF COMPACTION FACTOR
0.78; Very low workability: Used in concrete applied on paved surfaces or rod and are vibrated
by power operated machines.
0.85; low workability: Used in concrete applied on roads and vibrated by power operated
machines.
0.92; Medium workability: Used in normal reinforced concrete that manually compacted and in
heavily reinforced sections that are compacted by vibration.
0.96; High workability: concrete for heavily reinforced concrete sections that are not suitable for
vibration
Other tests for workability include the following;
Flow test
Vebe test
Ball penetration test
TESTING OF DRY SAMPLES.
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COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEFINITION
Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its surface
without any crack or deflection. A material under compression tends to reduce the size, while in
tension, size elongates.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FORMULA
Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of failure to the
cross-section area of the face on which load was applied.
Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area
Procedure: Compressive Strength Test of Concrete Cubes
For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x
10cm depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of
size 15cm x 15cm x 15cm are commonly used.
This concrete is poured in the mould and tempered properly so as not to have any voids. After 24
hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing. The top surface
of these specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by putting cement paste and
spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.
These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days
curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens
fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.
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FOLLOWING ARE THE PROCEDURE FOR TESTING COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
CONCRETE CUBES
Apparatus for Concrete Cube Test
Compression testing machine
Preparation of Concrete Cube Specimen
The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete used in
the field.
SPECIMEN
6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above
Mixing of Concrete for Cube Test
Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch mixer
HAND MIXING
Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a water tight none-absorbent platform until the mixture is
thoroughly blended and is of uniform color
Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse aggregate is
uniformly distributed throughout the batch
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Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired
consistency
Sampling of Cubes for Test
Clean the mounds and apply oil
Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5 cm thick
Compact each layer with not less than 35 strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar 16mm
diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)
Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel
Curing of Cubes
The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the specimens are
marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until taken out
prior to test.
Precautions for Tests
The water for curing should be tested every 7 days and the temperature of water must be at 27+-
2oC.
Procedure for Concrete Cube Test
Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water from the
surface.
Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the opposite
sides of the cube cast.
Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the specimen.
Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140 kg/cm2/minute till the
specimen fails
Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.
Note:
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Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If strength of any specimen
varies by more than 15 percent of average strength, results of such specimen should be rejected.
Average of three specimens gives the crushing strength of concrete. The strength requirements of
concrete.
CALCULATIONS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Size of the cube =15cmx15cmx15cm
Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen) =225 cm2
Characteristic compressive strength (f fck) at 7 days =
Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s
Range to be selected is …………………...
Similar calculation should be done for 28-day compressive strength
Maximum load applied =………. tones = …………. N
Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2) =……………N/mm2
=………………………. N/mm2
Reports of Cube Test
Identification mark
Date of test
Age of specimen
Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen
Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are unusual
Results of Concrete Cube Test
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = …………. N/ mm2 (at 7 days)
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =………. N/mm2 (at 28 days)
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT VARIOUS AGES
The strength of concrete increases with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at different
ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.
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AGE STRENGTH PERCENT
1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF CONCRETE AT 7 AND 28

DAYS
SPECIFIED CHARACTERISTIC
GRADE OF MINIMUM COMPRESSIVE
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (N/MM2) AT
CONCRETE STRENGTH N/MM2 AT 7 DAYS
28 DAYS
M15 10 15
M20 13.5 20
M25 17 25
M30 20 30
M35 23.5 35
M40 27 40
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M45 30 45
ASSIGNMENT:
In groups of 10people; Make two specimens of concrete cube, test for their compressive strength
using the compressive testing machine and tabulate the results to show the strength percentages.
Determine the average compressive strength of the two specimens above.
REVISION:
SELF TESTING EXERCISE:
Define creep as a property of a hardened concrete.
Describe the factors that affect creep.
State the causes of shrinkage in concrete structures.
How can shrinkage in concrete be controlled?
Mention one advantage and disadvantage of shrinkage.
Briefly discuss;
Natural production of aggregates
Artificial production of aggregates.
Explain the following terms as used in concrete;
Bulking of sand.
Water cement ratio

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Bulk density
Solid density.
Distinguish between the following as used in concrete
False set
Soundness and finess
b. Briefly describe the two most unstable concrete and how it can be resolved.
Define workability of concrete and briefly discuss the three major characteristics of its property.
Mention any four major composition of ordinary Portland cement.
SOLUTIONS:
Creep is the continuous deformation of a concrete structure under a sustained load.
Factors that affect creep are;
Ambient humidity.
Dimensional size of a member
Composition of the concrete.
Maturity of concrete when the load is first applied.
Duration of loading.
Magnitude of the loading.
Causes of shrinkage are;
Initial absorption of water by aggregates.
Evaporation of water from the concrete surface.
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During hydration of cement, a great deal of water is generated and as a concrete cools, the
thermal contraction results in further shrinkage.
The hardened concrete continues drying thus resulting in further shrinkage.
Shrinkage can be controlled by;
Use of mix design with low cement content.
Avoiding rapid hardening and finely ground cement.
Keep aggregates and cement water cool.
Use steel shuttering and cool with water spray.
Remove the shuttering early to allow heat of hydration to displace and also dry the concrete
One advantage of shrinkage is that it strengthens the bond between the constituent members and
steel and One disadvantage of shrinkage is that it causes cracking of concrete
Natural productions of aggregates are basically sand and gravels which are of natural origin.
They are products of denudation. i.e., the particles are resulted from the rocks that underwent the
processes of weathering, transportation and deposition.
Artificial production is where parent rocks are broken and crushed to the sizes desired by means
of mechanical crushers. The rocks are blasted and conveyed in bump forms in tracks to the
crushing plants. The crushers quickly reduce the rocks to approximately 75mm diameter. These
are passed through a primary screen that separates then to 75mm and below. Those below 75 mm
are passed through a secondary screens separating them into the desired sizes
Bulking of sand: when sand is moistened, films of water form on the particles and the tension to
hold them apart causing an increase in the volume of the sand.
Water cement ratio: is the ratio WS+WM/WC. Where WS is the surface water on the concrete,
WM is the water added during the mixing and WC is weight of cement in the mix.
Bulk density is the weight of the material held by the container of unit volume when filled or
compacted under defined conditions. It is expressed as KG/Cubic Meter
Solid density is the weight in air of a unit volume of a material to the weight of an equal volume
of water for an own dry material where it has no air or water.
=
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False set is characteristic of concrete which results in loss of plasticity without much heat being
developed a short time after concrete is mixed. False set results in in stiffening of cement (loss of
plasticity), however after mixing for some considerable time, a reasonable heat is generated in a
normal way. The effect of false set is due to the insufficient amount of gypsum to control the
rapid reaction of the cement.
Soundness is the physical property (ability) of the cement to retain its volume after it has set.
Lack of soundness affects the strength of the concrete due to unnecessary contraction and
expansions.
Fineness is the physical property that affects the rate of hydration. The finer the cement the
greater and faster is its strength development.
The two most common features of unstable concrete are;
Segregation and bleeding.
Segregation is the significance of fine and large particles in a mix to become separated. The less
cohesive the mix, the greater the tendency for segregation to occur.
Segregation is governed by total surface of the particles including the cement and the quantity of
mortar in the mix. E.g. blemishes, streaks of sand, porous layers, honey combing etc.
Concrete is versatile because it is used in many construction works such as;
Dams, Power stations, Bridges, Paved areas like roads, Manufacture of blocks, Roofing
tiles, Pipes, Paving slabs
Thin walled items like rain water fitting etc.
Concrete has low tensile strength 8-10 percent of the compressive strength
This necessitates the need for more reinforcement at the bottom/soffits of beams and floors.
Strength:
The compressive strength tests are usually done using concrete cubes or cylinders.
Drying shrinkage and moisture movements.
Thermal movements
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Creep
Deformation of concrete with time.
Slump is the difference in heights created by different samples of concrete/mortar from a slump
cone.
The more the slump, the more the workability.
For segregation, heavy materials settle down leaving paste of fine aggregate. In bleeding, water
appears on the top layer despite segregation of other materials
ADVANTAGES OF LIME CONCRETE;
Suitable in damp soils as it prevents the dampness from reaching the walls and floors
The material cost is low compared to cement.
Prevents/resists weathering effects.
It takes long to gain the compressive strength
Not suitable for foundation base where there is a lot loading.
DISADVANTAGES OF LIME CONCRETE;
It takes long to gain the compressive strength
Not suitable for foundation base where there is a lot loading.
ADVANTAGES OF RCC;
Good bonding properties
High compressive strength
High durability
DISADVANTAGES OF RCC;
Expensive due to High cost of steel bars.
High tendency of shrinkage
More labor and skill.

62
Purpose of the sand in the concrete mix design
Filling the voids in the coarse aggregates
Making the concrete denser
DISADVANTAGES OF PRE-STRESSED CONCRETES
. Extra labor required
High cost
Special equipment and skills
DELETERIOUS MATERIALS IN AGGREGATES;
Aggregates should not contain any harmful material in such a quantity so as to affect the strength
and durability of the concrete. Such harmful materials are called deleterious materials.
Deleterious materials may cause one of the following effects
EFFECTS OF DELETERIOUS MATERIALS;
interfere hydration of cement
prevent development of proper bond
reduce strength and durability
modify setting times;
CLASSIFICATION OF DELETERIOUS MATERIALS
Deleterious materials generally found in aggregates, may be grouped as under
Organic impurities
Clay, silt & dust
Salt contamination
FUNCTIONS OF WATER FOR MAKING CONCRETE: -
Hydration of cement.
Water acts as a lubricant for the fine and coarse aggregates.
Wetting the aggregate particles.
Used for curing the concrete.

63
Conversion of cement into paste.
Making the concrete more workable.
ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
Low density
Low thermal conductivity
Safe guards loadings on structural foundations.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE;
WATER CONTENT OR WATER TO CEMENT RATIO. The more the water content the higher
is water to cement ratio. This results in higher workability. Too much water may result into low
strength of hardened concrete.
SIZE OF AGGREGATE PARTICLES. The increase in the maximum size of the aggregates with
any change in the mix proportion result in an increase in workability since a lower quantity of
water is to wet the surfaces of the aggregate particles and more is available to act as lubricant in
the mix.
COURSE AND FINE AGGREGATE RATIO. For a constant aggregate to cement ratio, if the
quantity of course aggregate is increased and that of fine aggregate is reduced, to maintain the
aggregate to cement ratio, the total surface area of the aggregate is reduced. Therefore, for a
constant water to cement ratio, the quantity of water available per unit area is increased. This
improves workability
RELATIVE QUANTITY OF PASTE AND AGGREGATE. Decreasing the amount of paste

with respect to the quantity of aggregates decreases stiffens the mix and increasing the amount of
paste makes the mix more workable. If the amount of paste is not enough to fill the void and
actually floats the aggregates particles, the mix becomes granular and harsh and its and its
placement is impossible.
PARTICLE INTERFERENCE. This occur when particle of one size are present in excess in the
mix and the average clear space between the particles is less than the diameter of the particle in
the group next lower to it, inhibiting free passage of small grains between the larger particles to
distribute themselves evenly in mass and thus causing local voids in the concrete from which
water can leak. Mixing water thus will fill the void and less water will be remaining to lubricate
the mix. This results in low workability
PARTICLE INTERLOCK. Smooth (round) surface aggregate have higher workability for
constant water to cement ratio, than crushed rock aggregates. This due to mechanical interlock
64
that occur between the crushed angular aggregates and also due to relatively high coefficient of
friction
THE END:
GOOD LUCK
65

Concrete Technology Year1 2019

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Concrete Technology Year1 2019

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Course Code and Name: ECBD1104Concrete Technology

Course Level: Year I Semester I

By the end of the course the student should be able to:

Basics of concrete technology: 7 hours

1.2 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE.

The above elements are sometimes referred to as properties of fresh concrete.

1.2.1 WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE:

What is homogeneity as referred to concrete?

Outline ten processes in the design of ordinary concrete.

What are the causes of segregation?

Describe the term slump.

The graph of stress strain can explain.

What are the signs of deterioration?

1.3.0 TYPES OF CONCRETE:

The virtue of the cementation/binding, materials and the design;

1.3.1 CEMENTATION MATERIAL;

1.3.1.0. LIME CONCRETE AND CEMENT CONCRETE.

What are the advantages of using lime concrete?

What are the disadvantages of using lime concrete?

1.3.1.1 PLAIN CONCRETES

1.3.1.2 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC).

Describe the advantages of reinforced cement concrete over lime concretes

What are the disadvantages of reinforced cement concrete

What is the purpose of the sand in mix design of cement concrete?

ADVANTAGES OF PRE-STRESSED CONCRETES;

What are the disadvantages of pre-stressed concrete?

1.3.1.3 POST STRESSED

1.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE:

1.3.2.0 LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE

Describe the advantages of light weight concretes over dense concretes.

1.3.2.1 CELLULAR OR AERATED CONCRETE

1.3.2.2 FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE

1.3.2.3 POLYMER CONCRETE

1.3.2.4 SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE

1.3.2.5 HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CONCRETE

1.4.0. INTRODUCTION TO AGGREGATES:

Without the study of aggregates in details, the study of concrete is incomplete.

1.4.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY AGGREGATES:

1.4.1. USES OF AGGREGATES.

 Reduce materials costs: the aggregates are used as an extender.

1.4.3 OCCURRENCE OF AGGREGATES.

1.4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES.

1.4.4.2 HEAVY WEIGHT AGGREGATES.

1.4.4.3 NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREGATE.

1.4.4.4 GRADING OF AGGREGATES:

1.4.4.6 HOW TO CARRY –OUT SIEVE ANALYSIS ON AGGREGATES.

Figure 1 Arranging BS Sieves figure 2 weighing Aggregates

TABLE 1. COARSE AGGREGATES.

TABLE 2. FINE AGGREGATES.

TABLE 2. FINE AGGREGATES.

1.4.4.7 BULKING OF SAND.

1.4.4.8 BULKING TEST OF SAND.

PROCEDURES OF BULK TEST OF A SAND.

1. Get a sample of loose sand normally damp sand.

1.4.4.9 PRODUCTION OF AGGREGATES.

1.4.4.10 BRITISH STANDARD TESTS FOR AGGREGATES.

Angularity number = 67-100WCxG

12. Silt content.

1.4.4.11 STORAGE OF AGGREGATES:

2.12 WATER AND CONCRETE MIX DESIGN:

FUNCTIONS OF WATER IN THE PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE

SOLIDS %AGE (100%)

WATER CEMENT RATIO: -