REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Humans produce offspring by sexual reproduction. There are four key stages in any method of
sexual reproduction:

1. Gametes are produced. A gamete is a reproductive cell containing haploid number of

chromosomes produced by meiosis. In humans, the male gamete is the sperm and the
female gamete is the ovum.
2. The male gamete is transferred to the female gamete.
3. Fertilisation must occur. The sperm must fuse with the egg.
4. The zygote formed develops into a new individual.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system consists of the following organs

1. A pair of testes
2. A pair of epididymis
3. A pair of sperm ducts
4. Glands (seminal vesicles
and prostate gland)
5. Urethra
6. Penis

TESTES

There are two testes in a

human male that lie outside the body in a sack of skin called the scrotum. The development
of sperms requires a temperature lower than the body (340C). That is why the testes lie
outside the body.

Functions

1. Production of sperms by meiosis

2. Production of male reproductive hormone – testosterone

Both these functions occur when a male reaches puberty.

EPIDIDYMIS
Lying behind the testis is a much coiled tube called the epididymis. Sperms formed in the
testis can be temporarily stored in an inactive form in the epididymis.

SPERM DUCT/VAS DEFERENS

It is a tube like structure that carries the sperms from the testis to the urethra. Both the
sperm duct and the urethra have a common opening.

GLANDS

The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles lie behind the urinary bladder. They produce a
secretion that is rich in nutrients. The secretion of the glands is poured into the sperm duct
and mixes with the sperms. The mixture of sperms and the secretion of the glands is called
semen.

URETHRA

It is a tube that passes through the centre of the penis to the exterior. It transports both
urine and semen but not at the same time. A sphincter muscle prevents urination during
ejaculation.

PENIS

It is an organ that contains erectile tissue with numerous blood vessels. When the blood
vessels have an increased amount of blood flowing through them, it causes erection.

MALE GAMETE

Numerous sperms are produced throughout the life of a human male after puberty. The
human sperm consists of the following parts:

i. Head – it has a diameter of 2.3 micrometres. It contains a large nucleus and very
little cytoplasm with an acrosome. The nucleus contains a haploid set of chromosomes.
The acrosome is a sac containing enzymes. These enzymes break down the cells
surrounding the egg and part of its membrane so that the sperm can fertilise the egg.
ii. Middle piece – contains mitochondria which provides energy for the activity of the
sperm.
iii. Tail (flagellum) –contains protein fibres that help the sperm to become motile and
move towards the egg.
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system is made up of

the following organs:

1. A pair of ovaries
2. A pair of oviducts/fallopian tubes
3. Uterus
4. Cervix
5. Vagina

OVARIES

These are two oval shaped glands, present one on

each side of the uterus in the female pelvis. They are the site of production of female gametes
(eggs or ova). They also produce the female hormones, oestrogen and progesterone. They are
present at birth with some undeveloped eggs. It is only after puberty that they start
developing and producing eggs. Usually only one egg is released every month. The ovaries take
turns to release an egg during each menstrual cycle.

OVIDUCTS/FALLOPIAN TUBES

These are narrow tubes coming out from each side of the uterus. Fertilisation occurs here.
When an egg is released from the ovary, hey collect it and transport it to the uterus with the
help of peristalsis. They are not connected to the ovaries but their funnel shaped ends lie over
the ovaries.

UTERUS

It is a hollow pear shaped organ that lies in the lower abdomen. The uterus has muscular walls
that contract and relax during the process of childbirth. The inner lining, the endometrium, is
soft and smooth. It develops a large number of blood vessels during the menstrual cycle, as it
expects a fertilised egg to be implanted. If the egg is not implanted, the endometrium breaks
down and menstrual flow occurs. It also provides a place for the development of placenta.
CERVIX

It forms the neck of the uterus and is muscular. The opening of the cervix is as small as one
millimetre, but during childbirth, it opens up to ten millimetres.

VAGINA (birth canal)

It is a muscular canal that connects the cervix to the exterior. Semen is deposited in the vagina
during intercourse. It is lubricated and contracts during birth.

FEMALE GAMETE

Eggs or ova are produced by the ovaries after puberty. The egg is spherical with a diameter of
about 120 micrometres. It is larger than the sperm and is incapable of moving. It contains a
nucleus with a haploid set of chromosomes. Abundant cytoplasm is present. The egg has a cell
membrane surrounded by an outer membrane. Cells from the follicles form a protective layer
around the egg.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EGG AND SPERM

sperm Egg
 Mobile Immobile

Small Large

Large number Small number

Has a tail to move No tail

Less cytoplasm Abundance of cytoplasm

Acrosome containing enzymes No acrosome

ROLE OF REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES

Testosterone

⮚ Sperm production

⮚ Growth and development of male sex organs

⮚ Pubic and armpit hair

⮚ Facial and chest hair

⮚ Growth of muscles

⮚ Voice breaks

⮚ Sexual drive develops

Oestrogen

⮚ Egg production

⮚ Growth and development of female sex organs

⮚ Pubic and armpit hair

⮚ Breast development

⮚ Widening of hips

⮚ Voice deepens
 ⮚ Sexual drive develops

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Women produce one ovum per month during their reproductive life from puberty to middle age.
The cycle of producing and releasing mature ova is called the menstrual cycle. An average
menstrual cycle is of 28 days. 22-33 days is the normal range.

Purpose

1. To control the development of mature ova.

2. To prepare the uterus to receive any fertilised egg.

UTERINE CHANGES DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The wall of the uterus goes through four phases under the influence of oestrogen and
progesterone.

1. Menstruation – day 1-5

The uterus lining is shed and blood and tissue fragments leave the body through vagina. It is
due to a decrease in the concentration of progesterone.

2. Repair phase – day 6-14

More blood vessels grow in the lining of the uterus and the lining thickens and becomes more
stable. This is triggered by an increase in the levels of oestrogen.

3. Receptive phase – day 15-21

The lining of the uterus and its blood vessels are now well developed. If fertilisation has
occurred, the embryo can become implanted in this lining. These optimum conditions for
implantation remain for six to seven days after ovulation and are maintained by an increase
in the concentration of progesterone.

4. Premenstrual phase – day 22-28

The uterus lining degenerates as progesterone starts to fall.

DEVELOPMENT OF OVA DURING MENSTRUAL CYCLE

The ova develop from the cells lining the ovaries. There are many developing follicles in the
ovaries. The young follicles are called primary follicles. Each primary follicle consists of a
potential egg surrounded by a layer of smaller cells known as the follicular cells. Any primary
follicle can grow to maturity. A mature follicle is known as a Graafian follicle which contains
an egg surrounded by follicular cells and a fluid filled space. The egg is now ready to be
released from the ovary. The development of the follicle is controlled by FSH (follicle
stimulating hormone) released by the pituitary gland.

OVULATION

At about the 14th day, the Graafian follicle moves towards the surface of the ovary and
bursts, releasing the egg into the oviduct funnel. This is called ovulation. After ovulation,
 the remaining cells of the Graafian follicle form a structure called the corpus luteum which
produces the hormone progesterone. Ovulation and formation of corpus luteum are
controlled by LH (luteinising hormone) secreted by the pituitary gland.

ROLE OF HORMONES IN MENSTRUAL CYCLE

1. FSH
⮚ Stimulates the development of follicles in the ovary

⮚ Stimulates the secretion of oestrogen from follicular cells in the ovary.

2. LH
⮚ Causes ovulation

⮚ Forms corpus luteum

3. OESTROGEN
⮚ growth and repair of the lining of the uterus

⮚ inhibits FSH production (prevents the development of more follicles)

⮚ stimulates the secretion of LH

4. PROGESTERONE
⮚ keeps the uterine lining thick and well supplied with blood vessels, preparing it for
implantation
⮚ inhibits both FSH and LH

FATE OF EGG AND SPERM

After its release, an egg can live for 2-4 days. If during this time it is not fertilised, it dies.
Sperms can survive in the female genital tract for about 3 days.

ROLE OF PLACENTA DURING PREGNANCY

The placenta begins to develop at implantation and after 12 weeks it is a thick disc like
structure with finger like projections called chorionic villi that extend deep into the wall of the
uterus. The placenta is formed partly from the uterine wall. The mother’s blood is separated
from the embryonic blood by a thin layer of tissue so that diffusion of dissolved substances can
occur.

The embryo is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord which contains the blood vessels
of the embryo. It contains two umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein.

Functions

⮚ allows dissolved food substances (glucose, amino acids, minerals, vitamins) and oxygen to
diffuse from the mother’s blood to that of the embryo.
⮚ Allows metabolic waste products (CO2 and urea) to diffuse from the embryonic blood
capillaries into the mother’s bloodstream.
⮚ Allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother to the embryo

⮚ Produces progesterone which maintains uterine lining in healthy state during pregnancy

CHILDBIRTH

During pregnancy, a membrane called amnion, encloses the developing embryo. The amnion
secretes a fluid called the amniotic fluid, which protects the developing embryo from sudden
movements and bumps. As the embryo develops, it becomes more and more complex. When it
becomes recognisably human, we no longer call it an embryo but a fetus. At the end of nine
months, there just isn’t any room left for the fetus to grow and it sends a hormonal signal to
the mother to begin the birth process.

There are three stages to the birth of a child:

1. Dilation of the cervix – The cervix is the neck of the uterus. It gets wider to allow the
baby to pass through. The muscles of the uterus contract quite strongly and tear the
amnion, allowing the amniotic fluid to escape.
2. Delivery of the baby – Strong contractions of the muscles of the uterus push the baby’s
head through the cervix and then through the vagina to the outside world.
3. Delivery of the after birth – after the baby has been born, the uterus continues to
contract and pushes the placenta out, together with the membranes that surrounded the
baby. These are known as the after birth.