ELE 244

ELECTROMAGNETICS I

Lecture 6: Electrostatics
Electric Field & Electric Potential

HÜ-EEE ELE 244 – ELECTROMAGNETICS I 1

Electrostatics :

Electric charges are static (at rest).

They do not change with time.

As a result, the electric field is also static, and it is not

coupled with a magnetic field. First, we will consider electric
fields and forces in free-space.

Coulomb’s Law : The force between two point charges is

proportional to the product of the charges, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

ELE 241 – p. 2/3

 F12 : The force exerted by q1 on q2
â12 : unit vector from q1 to q2
F12 = â12 k qR1 2q2 k = 4πǫ1
: proportionality constant
12 0
ǫ0 = 361π × 10−9 (Farad /m)
ǫ0 is the permittivity of free − space.

ELE 241 – p. 3/3

If there are more than two charges the principle of
superposition applies, which allows the summation of
forces for each pair of charges. In this, we assume that the
charges do not disturb the charge distributions on other
particles when they are introduced to the system. So, if we
have n charges, the force exerted on i-th charge by all other
charges can be written as:
qi h q1 q2 qn i
Fi = 2
â1i + 2 â2i + · · · + 2 âni
4πǫ0 R1i R2i Rni

n
qi X qj
Fi = 2
âji (1)
4πǫ0 Rji
j=1
j 6=i

ELE 241 – p. 4/3

Eqn. (1) is valid independent of coordinate systems. In
Cartesian coordinate system consider the next figure.

ELE 241 – p. 5/3

 R = x âx + y ây + z âz
R1 = x1 âx + y1 ây + z1 âz
Rji âji = Ri − Rj

Ri − Rj
Rji = |Ri − Rj | and âji = |Ri −Rj |

As a result, eqn. (1) in Cartesian coordinates becomes,

n
qi X qj (Ri − Rj )
Fi =
4πǫ0 |Ri − Rj |3
j=1
j 6=i

ELE 241 – p. 6/3

Electric Field Intensity : is defined as the force per unit
charge that a small, stationary test charge experiences
when it is introduced in a region where electric forces
(electric field) exist.

F
E = lim (Volts/meter) or (Newtons/Coulomb)
q →0 q

This gives the inverse relation; F = qE

Earlier, it was mentioned that the scalar source density is
related to the divergence of a vector field. The divergence
of the electric field intensity is related to the electric volume
charge density by
ρ
∇·E= (2)
ǫ0

ELE 241 – p. 7/3

Here, ǫ0 is the permittivity of free-space, and ρ is the electric
charge density.

In order to define E totally, we need to look at its curl too.

The second postulate of electrostatics states that there is
no vector source density for the static electric field i.e.;

∇×E=0 (3)

When (2) is integrated over a volume V (arbitrary) we

obtain,

1
Z Z
∇ · E dv = ρ dv
ǫ0
V V

ELE 241 – p. 8/3

Using the divergence theorem for the LHS gives

Q
I
E · ds = (4)
ǫ0
S
R
where Q = ρ dv ≡ the total charge enclosed in the region V.
V
This again could be related to our earlier discussions about
the flux of a vector field. In order to have a nonzero outward
flux (field lines normally crossing S) we need to have a sink or
source in the region V. Eqn.(4) is known as the Gauss’ Law.

ELE 241 – p. 9/3

Similarly, an integral form of (3) can be obtained by
integrating it over an open surface S which has a contour C,
and using Stoke’s thm.
Z I
∇ × E · ds = E · d ~ℓ = 0
S C

This eqn. states that the static E field has no vector source
density, and therefore it is irrotational. As a result, its line
integral over a closed contour is zero. In other words, the
value of the line integral between points A and B is the
same independent of the choice of the path.

⇒ Static E is a conservative field.

ELE 241 – p. 10/3

Now, knowing Gauss’ Law we can look at the field of a point
charge again. Choose a hypothetical spherical surface
around q. Since q is a point charge, the E field (or force)
must be radial
q
I I
E · d s= (âR ER ) · âR ds =
ǫ0
S S
ds = R 2 sin θ d θ d φ
I
q
⇒ E · d s= ER (4π R 2 ) = ǫ0
S
⇒ E = âR ER = âR 4πǫq0 R 2

ELE 241 – p. 11/3

Solution using definition : Place a test charge Q in the field
of q.

qQ
F = âR
4πǫ0 R 2

Hence E becomes,

F q
E = lim = âR
Q →0 Q 4πǫ0 R 2

ELE 241 – p. 12/3

When the point charge is not at the origin, the distance, and
the unit vector must be adjusted accordingly.

Now E becomes:

q 1 R − R′
E = û û =
4πǫ0 |R − R′ |2 |R − R′ |

q R − R′
⇒E=
4πǫ0 |R − R′ |3

R is called the field point,

and R′ is the source point.

ELE 241 – p. 13/3

Ex 2-1 : Electric field due to a system of charges:

If there are n charges located at R′j wrt. the origin, the E

field at R is given by,

1
n
X R − R′j
E= qj
4πǫ0 |R − R′j |3
j=1

ELE 241 – p. 14/3

Continuous Charge Distributions :

i) Volume Charge Density

The E field for charge distributions can be obtained using

the superposition principle. Assume we have a volume
charge density ρv .

ρv is defined as :
 
△Q Coul
ρv = lim
△V →0 △V m3

ELE 241 – p. 15/3

Now if we have ρv in a region V ′ , subdivide the volume into
N smaller sections with charge △Qi′ = ρv △Vi′

Field at P due to △Vi′ can be written as :

△Qi′ R − R′i ρv R − R′i ′

Ei = = △ Vi
4πǫ0 |R − R′i |3 4πǫ0 |R − R′i |3

ELE 241 – p. 16/3

The total E field is the summation over N volumes
N
X ρv R − R′i ′
E= △ Vi
4πǫ0 |R − R′i |3
i=1
P R
If we let N → ∞ then △Vi → dv and →

R ρv R − R′ ′
E= dv
V′ 4πǫ0 |R − R′ |3

R = x, y, z : field coordinate
R′ = x ′ , y ′ , z ′ : source coordinate

ELE 241 – p. 17/3

If we do the limiting for Ei , we obtain the E field due to ρv dv
as a result. This E field is denoted by dE

ρv R − R′ ′
lim Ei = dE = dv
N →∞ 4πǫ0 |R − R′ |3

ii) Surface charge density :

The surface charge density is defined by,

△Q
ρs = lim (Coul/m2 )
△s→0 △s

ELE 241 – p. 18/3

The differential E field due to ρs ds′ is given by (with similar
arguments to volume case)

ρs R − R′ ′
dE = ds
4πǫ0 |R − R′ |3

and the total E field is

ρs R − R′
Z
′
E= ds
4πǫ0 |R − R′ |3
S′

ELE 241 – p. 19/3

iii) Line Charge Density

△Q
ρℓ = lim (Coul/m)
△ℓ→0 △ℓ

ρℓ R − R′ ′
dE = d ℓ
4πǫ0 |R − R′ |3

ρℓ R − R′
Z
′
E= d ℓ
4πǫ0 |R − R′ |3
L

ELE 241 – p. 20/3

Ex 2.2 : Find E for an infinitely long,straight line charge of
uniform density ρℓ in air.
Solution : Assume line charge lies along z-axis.

Use cylindrical coordinates (Be-

cause the problem has φ symmetry)

d ℓ′ = dz ′

R − R′ = âr (r − 0) + âz (0 − z ′ )

Here we chose z = 0 for simplicity since the field will be

independent of z. This is because line charge extends to
infinity in both directions.
ELE 241 – p. 21/3
 ρℓ dz ′ âr r − âz z ′
dE =
4πǫ0 (r 2 + (z ′ )2 )3/2

ρℓ rdz ′
and dEr =
4πǫ0 (r 2 + (z ′ )2 )3/2

−ρℓ z ′ dz ′
dEz =
4πǫ0 (r 2 + (z ′ )2 )3/2

R∞
Ez = dEz = 0
z ′ =−∞

Since dEz is an odd function of z ′ , fields from the charges

at +z ′ and −z ′ cancel.

ELE 241 – p. 22/3

Hence,

Z∞
ρℓ r dz ′
dE = âr Er = âr
4πǫ0 (r 2 + (z ′ )2 )3/2
−∞

Now use the transformation z ′ = r tan θ ⇒ dz ′ = r sec2 θd θ

and
(r 2 + (z ′ )2 )3/2 = r 3 (1 + tan2 θ)3/2 = r 3 (sec2 θ)3/2 = r 3 sec3 θ

Z∞ Zπ/2 Zπ/2
dz ′ r sec2 θd θ 1 dθ
⇒ ′ 3/ 2
= 3 3
= 2
2 2
(r + (z ) ) r sec θ r sec θ
−∞ −π/2 −π/2

ELE 241 – p. 23/3

 Zπ/2
1 2
= 2 cos θ d θ = 2
r r
−π/2

ρℓ
⇒ E = âr
2πǫ0 r

ELE 241 – p. 24/3

Using Gauss’ Law : Gauss’ Law is especially useful when
the problem has a symmetry so that we can choose a
hypothetical surface on which the normal component of E is
constant. For the problem at hand since we have φ
symmetry and since the z-component of E field cancels, we
can foresee that E = âr Er . Now a cylindrical Gaussian
surface can be chosen around the charge distribution

I ZL Z2π
E · ds = Er rd φdz = 2π rLEr
S 0 0

Qenclosed ρℓ L
=
ǫ0 ǫ0

ELE 241 – p. 25/3

 ρℓ L
⇒ 2π rLEr =
ǫ0

ρℓ
⇒ Er =
2π r ǫ 0

Here note that, since Er is a constant over the cylindrical

surface, the integral could be evaluated easily.

If this were not possible, application Gauss’ Law would not

be easier than calculation of fields directly from Coulomb’s
law.

ELE 241 – p. 26/3

Ex.2.3 :

Surface charge density of

σ (Coul/m2 ) is given over a
circular region r ≤ a. Find the
electric field on the z axis at
the point (0,0,z).

ELE 241 – p. 27/3

Solution : Source point : x ′ âx + y ′ ây
Field point : z âz

1 σ (R − R′ ) 1 σ (−x ′ âx − y ′ ây + z âz ) ′

Z Z
′
E= ′ 3
ds = ′ ′ 3 / 2
ds
4πǫ0 |R − R | 4πǫ0 2 2
((x ) + (y ) + z ) 2
S′ S′

Find x, y and z components of the field separately.

σ −x ′ ds ′
Z
Ex =
4πǫ0 ((x ′ )2 + (y ′ )2 + z 2 )3/2
S
Z′
σ −y ′ ds ′
Ey =
4πǫ0 ((x ′ )2 + (y ′ )2 + z 2 )3/2
S′

ELE 241 – p. 28/3

 σ zds′
Z
Ez =
4πǫ0 ((x ′ )2 + (y ′ )2 + z 2 )3/2
S′

Now use cylindrical coordinates to evaluate these fields.

x ′ = r ′ cos φ′ y ′ = r ′ sin φ′ ds′ = r ′ dr ′ d φ′

Za Z2π Z2π
σ −r ′ cos φ′ r ′ dr ′ d φ′
Ex = ′ 3 / 2
=0 since cos φd φ = 0
4πǫ0 2
((r ) + z ) 2
0 0 0

ELE 241 – p. 29/3

 Za Z2π Z2π
σ −r ′ sin φ′ r ′ dr ′ d φ′
Ey = =0 since sin φd φ = 0
4πǫ0 ((r ′ )2 + z 2 )3/2
0 0 0

Za Z2π Za
σ zr ′ r ′ dr ′ d φ′ 2πσ z r ′ dr ′
Ez = =
4πǫ0 ((r ′ )2 + z 2 )3/2 4πǫ0 ((r ′ )2 + z 2 )3/2
0 0 0

Let u 2 = (r ′ )2 + z 2 ⇒ udu = 2r ′ dr ′ ⇒ r ′ dr ′ = udu

ELE 241 – p. 30/3

 ′
r =a a
σz u du σ z du σz  1
Z Z  
Ez = = = −p

2ǫ 0 u 3 2ǫ 0 u 2 2ǫ 0 ′ 2 2

((r ) + z )  0
r ′ =0

σz h 1 1 i σ hz z i
So, Ez = −√ = −√
2ǫ0 |z | a2 + z 2 2ǫ 0 | z | a2 + z 2

ELE 241 – p. 31/3

 At z=0, there is a jump, the to-
tal change in Ez is ǫσ0 . This is a
general property:

The normal electric field is always discontinuous by an

amount ǫσ0 at a surface whose charge density is σ .

Now, instead of a finite circular charge distribution if we had

infinite surface charge distribution, the field at (0, 0, z) can
be obtained by taking the limit of Ez as a → ∞.

ELE 241 – p. 32/3

 σ
, z>0 Note: The unit vector from the source
2ǫ 0
(
Ez = is directed oppositely for above and
σ
− , z < 0 below the source plane.
2ǫ 0

In fact this is true for any point

(x, y, z), and this can be seen
by applying the Gauss’ Law:

Ex : Apply Gauss’ Law to

infinite planar surface charge
distribution of uniform density
σ.
ELE 241 – p. 33/3
 Electric Potential

HÜ-EEE ELE 244 – ELECTROMAGNETICS I 2

Electric Potential : Since the curl of electrostatic field is
zero, and since the curl of the gradient of a scalar field is
zero, we may write

E = −∇V

for the electrostatic field. This allows us to work with scalar

quantities which are easier to manipulate than the vector
quantities. E field, after having V , is obtained through
differentiation.

Electric potential has a physical significance too. Consider

moving a unit charge from one point to another in a region
where E exists. This movement will be done with a constant

ELE 241 – p. 2/2

speed (no acceleration). In order to do this, one must work
against the electric field, and this work will be equal to:

ZP2
W
=− E · d ~ℓ (J/C or Volts)
q
P1

ELE 241 – p. 3/2

Since ∇ × E = 0, this line integral is independent of the path
taken, and therefore, the work done in moving from P1 to P2
is constant, and represents the difference in electric
potential energy of a unit charge between point P2 and
point P1 .
ZP2
⇒ V2 − V1 = − E · d ~ℓ
P1

Because
ZP2 ZP2 ZP2
− E · d ~ℓ = − (−∇V ) · (âℓ d ℓ) = dV = V2 − V1
P1 P1 P1

ELE 241 – p. 4/2

Electric potential is always given and measured wrt a
reference potential. The absolute electric potential is
defined by choosing ”∞” as a reference, assuming that
there are no charges and fields at ”∞”, and V∞ = 0.

Hence, choose V1 = V∞ = 0:

ZP2 ZP
V2 −V∞ = − E·d ~ℓ ⇒ VP = − E·d ~ℓ (Absolute Potential)
∞ ∞

The E field is directed from "+"ve to "−"ve charges, while V

increases in the opposite direction.

ELE 241 – p. 5/2

Ex.2.4 :

Potential of a Point Charge

q
E= 2
âR in spherical co-
4πǫ0 R
ordinate system where q sits at
the origin. Then the absolute
potential at point A will be,

ELE 241 – p. 6/2

 ZA Z∞ Z∞ ∞
q dR q 1 
VA = − E · d ~ℓ = E · d ~ℓ = 2
= (− )
4πǫ0 R 4πǫ0 R 
∞ A RA RA

q
⇒ VA =
4πǫ0 RA

Here we chose d ~ℓ = âR dR for the path, but we could

choose any path, the result would be the same.

ELE 241 – p. 7/2

The potential difference between points A and B is,
B
q  1 1
Z 
VBA = VB − VA = − E · d ~ℓ = −
A 4πǫ0 RB RA

This should not be confusing, since the integral is path

independent.

The equipotential surfaces around the charge (i.e the

surfaces on which the potential is continuous) are
concentric spheres.

ELE 241 – p. 8/2

Potential for a dipole

Two equal and opposite

charges separated by a
distance d.
q  1 1 
V = −
4πǫ0 R+ R−
Assume d ≪ R
 −1  
1 d
⇒ R+ ≈ R− 2 cos θ ≈ R1 1 + d
2R cos θ

 −1  
1 d 1 d
and R− ≈ R+ 2 cos θ ≈ R 1− 2R cos θ

ELE 241 – p. 9/2

Substitute these back in V expression,

qd cos θ p · âR
V = 2
= where p = qd
4πǫ0 R 4πǫ0 R 2

∂V ∂V
and E = −∇V = −âR − âθ (in spherical coordinates)
∂R R ∂θ
When we have a distribution of charge, the potential of the
distribution can be obtained by using the superposition
principle.
N N
X Qi X Qi
V (R) = ′ =
4πǫ|R − Ri | 4πǫRi
i=1 i=1

ELE 241 – p. 10/2

 1 ρv
Z
′
V = ′
dv for volume charge distribution
4πǫ0 |R − R |
V′

1 ρs
Z
′
V = ′
ds for surface charge distribution
4πǫ0 |R − R |
S′

1 ρℓ
Z
′
V = ′
d ℓ for line charge distribution
4πǫ0 |R − R |
L′

Exercise : Study examples 3.8-3.10

ELE 241 – p. 11/2

Ex.2.5 : Find the electric potential on the axis of a circular
line of charge with ρℓ = ρ0 , and radius a.

ρℓ d ℓ′
dV =
4πǫ0 R

d ℓ′ = a d φ ′ R = (a2 + z 2 )1/2

ρ0 a d φ′
dV =
4πǫ0 (a2 + z 2 )1/2

Z2π
ρ0 a ′ ρ0 a
V = dφ =
4πǫ0 (a2 + z 2 )1/2 2ǫ0 (a2 + z 2 )1/2
0

ELE 241 – p. 12/2

Ex : Find the potential difference between points A and B.

ZB
VA − VB = E · d ~ℓ
A

ELE 241 – p. 13/2

 ρℓ
Remember : E = âr for an infinitely long line charge.
2πǫ0 r
Choose the path as shown in the figure.

ZB ZP ZB
E · d ~ℓ = E · d ~ℓ + E · d ~ℓ
A A P

ZP
ρℓ
Z
E · d ~ℓ = âr · d φâφ = 0
2πǫ0 r
A

ELE 241 – p. 14/2

ZB
ρℓ ρℓ r =R
Z
E · d ~ℓ = âr · dr âr = ln r 

2πǫ0 r 2πǫ0 r =a
P

ρℓ R
= ln
2πǫ0 a

ZB
~ ρℓ R
⇒ VA − VB = E · dℓ = ln
2πǫ0 a
A

ELE 241 – p. 15/2