Helmhol

tz’
sTheorem

Is this solution unique?

YES, as long as the vector field F ( r) itself goes to zero at infinity

If the divergence D(r) and the curl C(r) of a vector function

F(r) are specified, and if they both go to zero faster than 1/r 2
as r goes to infinity, and if F(r) itself goes to zero as r goes to
infinity, then F(r) is uniquely given by
F =−∇ U + ∇ ×W
 Maxw ell’
sEquati
ons

⃗ ρ
∇ . E= ϵ
0
⃗
∇ . B=0
−∂ ⃗
B
∇× E=⃗
∂t
∂ ⃗
E
⃗
∇× B=μ ⃗ +μ ϵ
J
0 0 0
∂t

Maxwell’s equations specify the divergence and curl of the

electric and magnetic fields. Using Helmholtz’s theorem, we
can then determine the electric and magnetic fields from
Maxwell’s equations.
Maxw ell’
sEquati
ons-ELECTROSTATI
CS

∇ . E = ρ/ϵ0
∇ × E=0

E ( r)=−∇
(1
4 π ϵ0
∫
ρ( r ')
ℜ
dV '
) ℜ=r−r '

1 ρ( r ') ^
=
4 π ϵ0
∫ 2
ℜ dV ' Coulomb’s Law!
ℜ

1 σ ( r ') ^
For a continuous surface charge, E ( r)=
4 π ϵ0
∫ 2
ℜ da '
ℜ
1 λ ( r ') ^
For a continuous line charge, E ( r)=
4 π ϵ0
∫ 2
ℜ dl '
ℜ
1 qi
For a collection of discrete charges, E ( r)= ∑ ℜ^
4 π ϵ0 i ℜ2i i
ELECTROST
ATI
CS
 ELECTROSTATI
CS
1 ρ( r ') ^
E ( r)=
4 π ϵ0
∫ 2
ℜ dV '
∇ . E = ρ/ϵ0 Helmholtz Theorem ℜ
∇ × E=0 1 qi
E ( r)= ∑ ℜ^
4 π ϵ0 i ℜ2i i
Maxwell’s Equations
for Electrostatics Coulomb’s Law

Force on a test charge Q, F ( r)=Q E ( r)

z
s

In principle, we’re done with Electrostatics!

 ELECTRi
c Fi
eld Li
nes

● Field lines begin on positive charges

● Field lines end on negative charges, or they extend upto infinity
● The strength of the field is indicated by the density of the field lines
● Field lines can never cross
 ELECTRi
c Fi
eld Li
nes–Closed Surf
ace

Flux Φ E =∮ E . d S
S

Flux ∝ Number of field lines

Flux through a closed surface is a measure of the total

charge inside the surface – Gauss’s Law
 Gauss’
sLaw

1 q
( ) q
∮ E . d a=∫ 4 π ϵ 2 r^ (r sin θ d θ d ϕ r^ )= ϵ0
0 r
2

Point charge q at origin

N
Principle of superposition E=∑ E i
i=1

( )
qi
N N

∮ E . d a=∑ (∮ E . d a )=∑ ϵ0
i=1 i=1

1
∮ E . d a= ϵ0 Q enc
Collection of point charges qi S
 Gauss’
sLaw

q r^ . d S
∫ E.d S = ∫
4 π ϵ0 surface r 2
surface
q |d S|cos θ
= ∫
4 π ϵ0 surface r 2

⃗|cos θ
|d S q
d Ω= 2
=sin θ d θ d ϕ = ∫
4 π ϵ0 surface
dΩ
r
The solid angle subtended by a surface S is defined q q
as the surface area of a unit sphere covered by the = 4π = ϵ
surface's projection onto the sphere. 4 π ϵ0 0

A measure of how large an object appears to an

observer looking from that point

If the point is located outside then

the contributions exactly cancel

Use superposition principle ---> Add

contribution from each charge
 Gauss’
sLaw –Di
fferenti
alForm

∫ E.d S = ∫ ∇ . E dV
surface vol
1 ρ(r )
ϵ0 Q enc = ∫ ϵ0 dV
vol

1 ρ(r )
∮ E . d a= ϵ0 Qenc ⇒ ∇ . E = ϵ0
S

Helmholtz Theorem

ρ(r) 1 q
∇ .E = ϵ E = r^
0 4 π ϵ0 r 2

Valid for moving charges! Only for static charges

Gauss’s Law
 CURLOFTHEELECTRI
C FI
ELD

1 q
E = 2
r^
4 π ϵ0 r
∇×E = 0

( )
b b
1 q
b ∫ E . d l= ∫ 4 π ϵ0 r 2
r
^ .(dr r
^ + r d θ ^ r sin θ d ϕ ϕ)
θ+ ^
a a

( )
b b
1 q q 1 1
∫ E . d l= 4 π ϵ ∫ 2 dr= 4 π ϵ r − r
a 0 a r 0 a b

q
∮ E . d l=0 Stokes Theorem
⇒ ∇ × E=0
a True for any charge configuration due to superposition!
Valid only for static charges
 Gauss’
sLaw +SYMMETRY -SPHERE

Consider a spherically symmetric charge distribution ρ(r)

E ϕ=0 Why?

Rotate about the z-axis

∮ E . d l=0 ⇒ E ϕ=0
ρ(r )
E θ=0 Why?

Rotate about the x-axis

∮ E . d l=0 ⇒ E θ=0
R
1
Apply Gauss's Law: E r . 4 π R = ϵ ∫ ρ(r)4 π r 2 . d r
2
0
0
 Gauss’
sLaw +SYMMETRY -CYLI
NDER

Consider a long, narrow wire with a charge per unit length λ

E ϕ=0 Why?

Rotate about the z-axis

∮ E . d l=0 ⇒ E ϕ=0
E z=0 Why?
Flip about z-axis
Nothing distinguishes z from -z
⇒ E z =0

1
Apply Gauss's Law: Eρ . 2 π ρ = ϵ λ
0
 Gauss’
sLaw +SYMMETRY -SURFACE

Consider an infinite sheet of charge with a surface charge density σ

E // ( E x , E y )=0 Why?
Rotate the sheet about any point
Translate by any in-plane vector
Field cannot change ⇒ E // =0

1
Apply Gauss's Law: ∫ E . d a = 2 A|E|= ϵ0 σ A

E= σ n ^
2 ϵ0
 Gauss’
sLaw +SYMMETRY -SURFACE

Consider two parallel plates with equal and opposite charge

densities ±σ . What is the electric field?

ϵ0 A
C=
d

s -s

{
σ n+^ σ n= ^ ϵσ n^ between the plates
E= 2 ϵ0 2 ϵ0 0

0 everywhere else
 Gauss’
sLaw +Symmetry

What is the flux of the electric field through the shaded face?
q
24 ϵ0
 THEELECTRI
C POTENTI
AL

Gauss’s Law is always true.

It may not always be useful!

If we can take advantage of the symmetries of a

problem, Gauss’s Law can be a very powerful tool.

∇×E = 0
E = −∇ V
V (r) ≡ Electric Potential

∇ . E=ρ/ϵ0 ⇒ ∇ 2 V =−ρ/ ϵ0 Poisson’s Equation

2
In regions of no charge ∇ V = 0 Laplace Equation
 THEELECTRI
C POTENTI
AL

∇ × E=0 ⇔ ∮ E . d l=0
r

V (r) = − ∫ E . d l O is some standard reference point

O

b a b

V (b)−V (a) = − ∫ E . d l+∫ E . d l = − ∫ E . d l

O O a
2
E = −∇ V ∇ V =−ρ/ϵ0

We have reduced a vector problem to a scalar one. How?

The choice of reference point is arbitrary. Changing the reference point
does not change the potential difference or electric field between two
point.
For most situations, V (∞) = 0
Units: N-m/C, J/C,
Potential obeys the superposition principle.
Volt
POTENTI
ALforlocali
zed chargedi
stri
buti
ons

P r
1 q
V (r) = − ∫
4 π ϵ0 ∞ r ' 2
dr '
r

[ ]
r
1 q 1 q
= =
4 π ϵ0 r ' ∞ 4 π ϵ0 r
q
1 q
Point charge at origin V (r) =
4 π ϵ0 |r−r s|

P P Superposition principle
r-ri qi
1
V (r) = ∑
4 π ϵ0 i |r−r i|
qi 1 q(r ')
V (r) = ∫
4 π ϵ0 |r−r '|
dV '