Electromagnetic Theory:Gauss’ Law,

Polarization and Displacement vector, Ampere’s

Circuital Law in di erential form, equation of
continuity and its contradiction with Ampere’s
circuital law, displacement current, Maxwell’s
Field equations, electromagnetic wave equation
and its plane wave solution in free space,
transverse nature of electromagnetic waves ,
Energy in an electromagnetic eld, energy ow
and Poynting vector.
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Text book
Coulomb’s law
 Coulomb’s law
Force on charge particle
q1 due to charge q2

⃗
F 12 =
q q
1 2 r ⃗
1 − r ⃗
2
4πϵ0 | r 1⃗ − r 2⃗ | 3

q1q2 r 12 ⃗
=
4πϵ0 | r 12
⃗ | 3
 Coulomb’s law
Force on charge particle
q2 due to charge q1

⃗
F 21 =
q q
1 2 r ⃗
2 − r ⃗
1
4πϵ0 | r 1⃗ − r 2⃗ | 3

⃗ =− F⃗
⇒ F 12
Newton’s 3rd law
21 of motion
Electric eld at point r ⃗ due to a point charge
q at point r 0⃗
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 Electric eld
Force on a test charge
Δq at point r ⃗ due to the
charge q is
F ⃗=
qΔq r ⃗ − r ⃗ 0
4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r 0⃗ | 3

⃗
E (⃗ r)⃗ = lim Δq → 0
F
Δq

⃗
⇒ E ( r)⃗ =
q r ⃗ − r ⃗
0
4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r 0⃗ | 3
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 Electrostatic potential:

⃗ ⃗
∇ × E ( r)⃗ = 0⃗

⃗
So E can be written as a
gradient of a scaler eld

E (⃗ r)⃗ = − ∇ ⃗ V
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Electrostatic potential: E (⃗ r ⃗) = − ∇ ⃗ V

⇒ dV = − E ⃗ ⋅ d r ⃗

r⃗
E ⃗ ⋅ dr ⃗
∫∞
⇒ V( r)⃗ − V(∞) = −

r⃗
E ⃗ ⋅ dr ⃗
∫∞
⇒ V( r)⃗ = −
 r⃗
E ⃗ ⋅ dr⃗
Electrostatic potential due to a ∫∞
V( r ⃗ ) = −

point charge:

The integration variable is r′⃗ .


Electrostatic potential due to a point charge:

V( r)⃗
r⃗ ⃗
= − ∫∞ E ⋅ d r′⃗
r ⃗ q r′⃗
= − ∫∞ 4πϵ ′3 ⋅ d r′⃗
0 r
q r 1
=− 4πϵ0
∫∞ dr′
r ′2

q 1 
=

4πϵ0 r
              


For simplicity, we have considered a charge particle at

the origin.

Electrostatic potential due to a point charge:

If we consider a charge particle at point r 0⃗ the potential

will be

q 1
V( r)⃗ = 4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r 0⃗ |
Electric eld at point r ⃗ due to a point
charge distribution
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 Electric eld at point r ⃗ due to a point
charge distribution: superposition principle

E (⃗ r)⃗ =
q1 r ⃗ − r ⃗
1 q2 r ⃗ − r ⃗
2
+ + ⋯
4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r 1⃗ |3 4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r 2⃗ |3

qi r ⃗ − r i⃗
∑ 4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r ⃗ |3
=
i i
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Electrostatic potential at point r ⃗ due to a point
charge distribution: superposition principle

1 qi
∑ 4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r i⃗ |
V( r)⃗ =
i
Electric dipole: 2 equal and
opposite charges separated by a
small distance.

Dipole moment p⃗ = q l ⃗
Electric eld due to dipole at origin:

E (⃗ r)⃗ =
1 1 3( p ⃗ ⋅ r)
⃗
4πϵ0 r 3 ( r 2
r ⃗ − p )
⃗
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Electric eld at point
r ,⃗ due to dipole at r 0⃗ :
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Electrostatic potential at
point r ,⃗ due to dipole at r 0⃗ :
 Electric eld at point r ⃗ due to a volume
charge distribution: superposition principle

volume charge
density at point r 0⃗

Δq
ρ( r 0⃗ ) = lim Δτ → 0
Δτ

Charge within the volume dτ

at point r 0⃗ is ρ( r 0⃗ ) dτ
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Electric eld at point r ⃗ due to a volume
charge distribution: superposition principle

E (⃗ r)⃗ =
1 r ⃗ − r ⃗
∫τ 4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r ⃗ |3
0
ρ( r ⃗
0 ) dτ
0

The integration variable is r 0⃗ ,

dτ = dx0 dy0 dz0
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Electrostatic potential at point r ⃗ due to a volume
charge distribution: superposition principle

1 1
∫τ 4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r 0⃗ |
V( r)⃗ = ρ( r 0⃗ ) dτ

The integration variable is r 0⃗ .

 Electric eld at point r ⃗ due to a surface
charge distribution: superposition principle

E (⃗ r)⃗ =
1 r ⃗ − r ⃗
∫S 4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r ⃗ |3
0
σ( r ⃗
0 ) dS
0

The integration variable is r 0⃗ .

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Electrostatic potential at point r ⃗ due to a volume
charge distribution: superposition principle

1 1
∫S 4πϵ0 | r ⃗ − r 0⃗ |
V( r)⃗ = σ( r 0⃗ ) dS
Electrostatic energy due to a point
charge distribution
Electrostatic energy due to a point
charge distribution

qiqj
∑ 4πϵ0rij
U=
i<j
 Electrostatic energy in terms of electric
eld produced by the charge distribution

1
∫τ 2
2
U= ϵ0E dτ

1
2 ∫τ
2
U = ϵ0 E dτ
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 Gauss Law:

Consider any arbitrary

closed surface S, total
charge in side the
surface = Qenc

⃗ Q
∬S
enc
̂ =
E ⋅ ndS
ϵ0
Gauss Law:

Qenc can be expressed as

∭τ
Qenc = ρ( r)dτ
⃗
 Gauss Law:
E ⃗ ⋅ ndS
1
∬S ϵ0 ∭τ
̂ = ρ dτ

∇ ⃗ ⋅ E ⃗ dτ =
1
∭τ ϵ0 ∭τ
⇒ ρ( r ⃗) dτ

The volume τ is arbitrary, so

we can write as

∇⃗ ⋅ E ⃗ =
ρ
ϵ0 Di erential form of Gauss law
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 ∇⃗ ⋅ E ⃗ =
ρ
Poisson’s Law:
ϵ0

The de nition of electrostatic potential E (⃗ r)⃗ = − ∇ ⃗ V

∇ ⃗ ⋅ (− ∇ ⃗ V) =
ρ
ϵ0

ρ
⇒ ∇2 V = −
ϵ0

Poisson’s equation
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 Laplace’s Equation :

The region, where ρ =0

2
∇ V=0

Laplace’s equation
Electrostatic in material medium
An atom in presence of electric eld

E=0 E≠0
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 An atom in presence of electric eld

Separation of +ve and -ve charge chanter

Result: formation of dipole

Induced Dipole moment of the

atom
p⃗ = α E ⃗
α is called the atomic polarizability
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 Molecule with permanent dipole moment

Some molecules have built-in, permanent dipole

moments.

− +
Cl H
Molecule in presence of electric eld

Dipole will align in the direction of

applied electric eld.
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 Polarization:

Dielectric medium consist of large number of

molecules. There will be net electric dipole
moment if we apply an electric eld. The
dipole moment per unit volume is called the
polarization, the medium is called polarized
medium.

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 Polarization:

Polarization at point r 0⃗ is de ne as

P (⃗ r 0⃗ ) = lim Δτ → 0
Δ p ⃗
Δτ

Δp⃗ is the total dipole moment of the molecules

within the small volume Δτ at point r 0⃗ .
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Field due to polarized object:
Potential due to polaized object:

Dipole moment of the elemental volume dτ at

point r 0⃗ is dp⃗ = P ⃗ dτ. So the electrostatic
potential is given by...

1 P ⃗ ⋅ ( r ⃗ − r 0⃗ )
∫
V( r)⃗ = dτ
4πϵ0 τ | r ⃗ − r 0⃗ | 3
Del operator in r 0⃗

∇⃗
1 r ⃗ − r 0⃗
0( ) =
| r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ | | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ |3
Field due to polarized object:

∇⃗
1 r ⃗ − r 0⃗
Check the relation: 0( ) =
| r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ | | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ |3

P ⃗ ⋅ ∇ 0⃗ (
1 1
V( r)⃗ =
∫
4πϵ0 τ | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ | ) dτ

Integrating by parts...
 P ⃗ ⋅ ∇ 0⃗ (
1 1
Field due to polarized object: V( r ⃗ ) =
4πϵ0 ∫τ | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ | ) dτ

Integrating by parts...

⃗
1 ⃗ ⋅ P 1 ⃗ ⋅ P ⃗ dτ
V( r ⃗) = {
4πϵ0 ∫τ
∇ 0
| r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ |
dτ −
∫τ | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ |
∇ 0 }

Applying Gauss-Divergence theorem

P⃗
∇ 0⃗ ⋅ P ⃗ dτ
1 1 1
4πϵ0 ∮S | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ | 4πϵ0 ∫τ | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ |
V( r ⃗) = ⋅ n ̂ dS −
Field due to polarized object:

P⃗
∇ 0⃗ ⋅ P ⃗ dτ
1 1 1
4πϵ0 ∮S | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ | 4πϵ0 ∫τ | r ⃗ − r0 ⃗ |
V( r ⃗) = ⋅ n ̂ dS0 −

First term is equivalent to potential of a surface

charge distribution with surface charge density,
σb( r 0⃗ ) = P (⃗ r 0⃗ ) ⋅ n ̂

Second term is equivalent to potential of a

volume charge distribution with volume charge
density, ρb( r 0⃗ ) = − ∇ 0⃗ ⋅ P (⃗ r 0⃗ )
Field due to polarized object:

So, the potential of a polarized medium has two

contributions,

1. Contribution form the surface of the medium

2. Contribution form inside the medium

The medium is neutral, so there is no free charge, the

charges are bound to the medium. That’s why we call it
bound charge. The e ective charge density is given by

.      
  ρb( r ⃗) = − ∇ ⃗ ⋅ P (⃗ r ⃗)
σ ( r ⃗) = P (⃗ r ⃗) ⋅ n    
b ̂
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 Gauss Law in presence of dielectrics

Consider a close surface S,

inside a dielectric medium. The
volume enclosed by the surface
S, may have two type of charges
bound charge and free charge.

The Gauss law

E ⃗ ⋅ ndS
1
̂ = (Qf + Qb)
∬S ϵ0
 Gauss Law presence of dielectrics

Free charge inside the surface

∭τ
Qf = ρf dτ

Bound charge inside the surface

⃗ ⋅ P ⃗ dτ
∭τ ( )
Qb = − ∇
 Gauss Law presence of dielectrics

So, Gauss law can be expressed as

E ⃗ ⋅ ndS (ρf − ∇ ⃗ ⋅ P )⃗ dτ
1
∬S ϵ0 ∭τ
̂ =

Using Gauss-divergence theorem

∇ ⃗ ⋅ E ⃗ dτ = (ρf − ∇ ⃗ ⋅ P )⃗ dτ
1
∭τ ϵ0 ∭τ
⇒

The volume τ is arbitrary, so the integrant

must be identical from the both side.
 Gauss Law presence of dielectrics

So, we have

∇ ⃗ ⋅ E ⃗ = (ρf − ∇ ⃗ ⋅ P )
⃗
1
ϵ0

⇒ ∇ ⃗ ⋅ (ϵ0 E ⃗ + P )⃗ = ρf

We de ne the electric displacement vector as

D ⃗ = ϵ0 E ⃗ + P ⃗

Then the Gauss law inside the

dielectric medium becomes ⃗ ⃗
∇ ⋅ D = ρf
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 Linear dielectric medium :
P ⃗ = ϵ0 χ E ⃗
χ is the electric susceptibility of the medium

So D⃗ = ϵE ⃗

Where, the dielectric constant of the

medium is given by

ϵ = ϵ0(1 + χ)
 Energy:
1 ⃗ ⃗
2 ∫τ
U= E ⋅ D dτ
 Close line integration of electric eld:

⃗ ⃗
∇ × E ( r)⃗ = 0⃗
Consider an open surface S,
enclosed by a closed line C

Integrating both side of the

above equation over the surface
S, we get

∇ ⃗ × E ⃗ ⋅ ndS
∬S
̂ =0
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Close line integration of electric eld:

∇ ⃗ × E ⃗ ⋅ ndS
∬S
̂ =0

Using Stock’s law, we have

E ⃗ ⋅ dl ⃗ = 0
∮C
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 Boundary condition:
Consider two medium separated by a boundary
surface. What will be the relation between the elds in
two di erent medium at the boundary?
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 Boundary condition:

Consider a closed rectangular loop

ABCDA, one part lies in medium 1
and another part in medium 2. As we
are interested in boundary value of
the led, we consider breadth is
negligible compare to the length of
the rectangle, so that we may stay
very closed to the boundary.

E ⃗ ⋅ dl ⃗ = 0
∮ABCDA
We have
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 Boundary condition:
E ⃗ ⋅ dl ⃗ = 0
∮ABCDA

Contribution of AD and BC are

negligible as the length is very small.

E 1⃗ ⋅ l ⃗ − E 2⃗ ⋅ l ⃗ = 0

E 1⃗ is the electric eld in medium 1. And ....

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 Boundary condition:

E 1t⃗ − E 2t⃗ = 0

⇒ E 1t⃗ = E 2t⃗

So, tangential component of electric eld is

continuous across the boundary of two medium.
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 Boundary condition:

Consider a closed cylindrical shaped

closed surface S, one part lies in
medium 1 and another part in
medium 2. As we are interested in
boundary value of the led, we
consider height is negligible with
compared to radius of the cylinder, so
that we may stay very closed to the
boundary.

We have
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 Boundary condition:
We have

Contribution from the curve surface is

negligible,

Dn1ΔS − Dn2ΔS = σΔS

So, we have
Dn1 − Dn2 = σ