Electrostatic Sensors Actuators

EE-502 / ME-504 / MSE-504:
Introduction to Microelectromechanical Systems

(MEMS)
Electrostatic Sensors and Actuators
R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

Outline
• Review of electrostatics and capacitance

• Capacitive (electrostatic) sensing
– Accelerometers
– Pressure sensors
– Condenser microphones
• Electrostatic forces
• Electrostatic actuation
– Parallel plates
– Deflected beams
– Deflected membranes
– Comb drives

Electrostatics – Coulomb’s Law
• The fundamental law behind all electrostatic interactions.
• The force between two charges is proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
ˆ = r −r
R = RR Q1Q2 ˆ
2 1 F= R F = EQ2
4π ε R 2
y Q1 E-field Q1 (r1 ) Q1 (r1 ) ⋅ (r − r1 )

E( r ) = ˆ
R=
2 3
R = r2 − r1 4πε r − r1 4πε r − r1
Q2 ε = permittivity
r1 ε0 = permittivity of vacuum
“test charge” ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m
r2
ε = εr ε0
x εr = relative permittivity
The Electric Potential – 1
• Work is done in moving a charge through an electric field.
• The electric field is conservative, so it can be represented by a
potential which relates energy to position. The work performed in
moving the charge between two positions is then proportional the
difference in potential between the two points.
y r2 r2
∆W = ∫ F ⋅ dl = Q2 ∫ E ⋅ dl = Q2 (V1 − V2 )
r1 r1
position 2 r2
dl Q2 V2 − V1 = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
r1
r2 position 1
Q1 r1
x
E-field

• For a conservative field, the work integral is independent of the
path taken.
• For radial path 1, dl = −dr, the potential difference is then:
• For all other paths, e.g. path 2, the result is the same.
r2 Q1 r2 Q1 Q1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
y V2 − V1 = − ∫ rˆ ⋅ dl = − ∫ dr = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
r1 4π ε r 2 r1 4π ε r 2
4π ε ⎝ r2 r1 ⎠
path 2
(arbitrary)
dl
r1 Q2 r̂ ⋅ dl = −dl = dr
position 1
path 1 (radial)
Q1 r2 position 2 dl
x
∫ E ⋅ dl = 0
E-field

∆W r2 Q1 ⎛1 1⎞
• Given that = − ∫ E ⋅ dl = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = V2 − V1
Q2 r1 4π ε ⎝ r2 r1 ⎠
Q
• The potential of a point charge located at the origin is: V =
4π ε r
Q1
• The potential of a point charge located at r1 is: V =
4π ε r − r1
1 ρ (r ' )
4π ε ∫
• The potential of a charge distribution is: V (r ) = dr '
Volume r - r'
• The electric field can be directly obtained from the potential:
r2
If V2 − V1 = − ∫ E ⋅ dl then E = −∇V .
r1

• The electrostatic field E can be obtained from the potential V or ψ:
E = −∇V
• Gauss’ Law gives the electric flux density D arising from a charge
density distribution ρ [C/m3]:
∇⋅D = ρ
• The media is characterized by D = εE, and if ε is a constant, then,
− ∇ ⋅ ε ∇ψ = ρ
• This gives Poisson’s Equation, the fundamental source-field
problem in electrostatics:
ρ
∇ψ =−
2
ε R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

Grad and Laplacian Operators
∂ ∂ ∂
• The grad operator is ∇ = xˆ+ yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
• The Laplacian operator is ∇ = 2+ 2+ 2
2
∂x ∂y ∂z
• Note that in non-cartesian coordinates, these operators change their
form because the unit vectors become functions of position r:
• Cylindrical coordinates:
∂ ˆ1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = rˆ + θ + zˆ ∇ =
2
⎜r ⎟ + 2 + 2
∂r r ∂θ ∂z r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r ∂θ 2
∂z
• Spherical coordinates:
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂2
∇2 = 2 ⎜ r +
⎟ 2 ⎜ sin θ ⎟+ 2 2
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ r sin θ ∂ϕ 2
∂ ˆ1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ = r +θ
ˆ +ϕˆ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Solutions to Poisson’s Equation
• Given the potential, find the charge distribution:
• This is just evaluating the Laplacian operator in Poisson’s Eq.:
ρ
∇ψ =−
2
ε
• Given the charge distribution, find the potential:
• A formal integration of Poisson’s Eq. leads to:
1 ρ
4π ε ∫
ψ= dV
Vr
• r is the distance from the source point of ρ to the observation point
of ψ. This is sometimes known as a Green’s function solution.
• This is seen to be equivalent to summing up the potential
contributions from each of the differential charges comprising the
distribution.
• Charge contributions to a potential add linearly!
Electromagnetics: Maxwell’s Equations
∂B
Faraday’s Law: ∇×E = −
∂t
Ampere’s Law: ∂D
∇× H = J +
∂t
Gauss’ Law: ∇⋅B = 0
Gauss’ Law: ∇⋅D = ρ
Lorentz Force: f = ρ (E + v × B )
Permittivity: D =εE
Permeability: B = µH
Conductivity: J =σE

EM Sources, Potentials, and Boundary Conditions
• Sources:
– Charge density: ρ = q( Zni − ne )
(ions and electrons)
– Current density: J = q ( Zni u i − neu e )
• Potentials:
∂A
– Scalar electric potential, ψ E = −∇ψ −
– Vector magnetic potential, A ∂t
• Boundary conditions: B = ∇× A
n × (E 2 − E1 ) = 0 ∂ 2
A
∇ A − µε 2 = −µ J
2
n × ( H 2 − Η1 ) = K ∂t
n ⋅ (B 2 − B1 ) = 0 ∂ 2
ψ ρ
∇ ψ − µε 2 = −
2
n ⋅ (D 2 − D1 ) = ρ S ∂t ε
Electromagnetic Potentials and Gauges
• The EM field is defined by 6 components:
– 3 components of E and 3 components of H.
• Only 4 components are needed to uniquely specify the fields
because of self-consistency requirements.
– The choice of which 4 is arbitrary and dictated by convenience for the
problem at hand.
• The electromagnetic potentials are one set:
∂A
– 1 component of ψ and 3 components of A. E = −∇ψ −
– Scalar electric potential ψ. ∂t
– Vector magnetic potential A. B = ∇× A
• A “gauge” is required to make the previous definitions of ψ
and A unique: ∂ψ
∇ ⋅ A = −µε
– Lorentz gauge: ∂t
– Coulomb gauge: ∇⋅A = 0
– The Lorentz gauge is by far the most common for engineering!
Energy Storage and Propagation in EM Fields
• Energy is stored separately in the electric and magnetic fields:
( )
W = ∫ 12 ε E 2 + 12 µ H 2 dV = ∫ w dV [Joules]
V V
• The Poynting vector: S = E × H points in the direction of power flow.
• Energy propagates as power flow in the EM field: Poynting’s Theorem:
⎛ ∂D ∂B ⎞
− ∫ (E × H ) ⋅ nˆ dA = ∫ E ⋅ J dV + ∫ ⎜ E ⋅ +H⋅ ⎟ dV
Σ V V
⎝ ∂t ∂t ⎠
d
− ∫ S ⋅ nˆ dA = ∫ E ⋅ J dV + ∫ w dV [Watts]
Σ V dt V
• Conservation of energy:
– Power flowing into the volume V through its surface Σ equals the energy lost to
moving the charges inside the volume (ohmic losses) plus the change in energy
stored within that same volume (W).

The Capacitance Concept
• Gauss’ Law is geometrically interpreted as that electric flux lines
originate and terminate on charges.
• If two conducting bodies have equal and opposite charges, then all
of the electric flux lines originating on one body will terminate on
the other, absent of other fields and charges in the vicinity.
• Perfect conductors have the same potential throughout their extent.
• Poisson’s Eq. says that if the geometry remains fixed, the charge
and potential will scale linearly with each other.
Q = C (V2 − V1 )
+Q −Q The capacitance C is the
V2 V1 proportionality constant
for this scaling.

Useful Capacitance Formulas
parallel plate cylindrical spherical
b a
a
a b
d L
ε ab εA 2π ε L ab
C= = C= C = 4π ε
d d ⎛b⎞ b−a
ln⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
Capacitive Energy Storage
• Parallel plate example:

– Electric field energy stored in the capacitor [Joules]:
1 ε ab
2 2
V V
W = ∫ 12 ε E 2 dV = ∫ 1
2 ε dV = 1
2 ε abd = 2 V 2
= 1
2 CV 2
V V d2 d2 d
• The result W = ½CV2 is true for all capacitor geometries.

Capacitive Fringe Fields
• The previous capacitor formulas assume that the electric field is
contained entirely within the gap between the two conductors.
• In truth, the electric field extends outward past the gap, usually
decaying in strength as 1/r2.
• This fringe field adds additional capacitance and energy storage.
• Many approximations are available for including the effects of
these fringe fields.
One common approximation:
+Q
Add ~0.8 d to each lateral
dimension of the parallel
plates.
d
ε (a + 1.6d )(b + 1.6d )
C≅
d
−Q
Capacitive Sensing
• Capacitive geometries can be used for sensors if the quantity to be
sensed changes either the capacitor geometry (a, b, or d), or the
dielectric constant ε = εrε0.
• Mechanical:
– The plates can move, changing either the spacing or overlap area.
• Chemical:
– The dielectric constant can be modified by the absorption of some
species, e.g. water, VOCs. etc.
• Thermal:
– The dielectric constant can change with temperature.

Capacitive Sensor Circuitry
• Converting the change in capacitance into an electrical voltage or
current signal requires a circuit whose operation is sensitive to this
capacitance.
• Frequency selective circuits:
– LC tuned oscillators.
– Capacitive discharge relaxation oscillators (usually RC), also termed
astable multivibrators.
• Time sensitive circuits:
– Capacitive RC delay circuits.
– Monostable pulse generator circuits.
• Bridge circuits:
– Capacitive voltage dividers (driven by AC).
– Impedance bridges.

Capacitive Accelerometer
• Inertially driven movement of the proof mass bends the metalized
beam, changing its capacitance CB to the substrate.
• The capacitance change in CB is detected by an external bridge
circuit with FET amplification.
• Notice that the capacitances involved are small: 3.5 x 10−15 F!
Figure from Liu, Foundations of MEMS, 2006. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Tilt-Plate Capacitive Accelerometer
• This approach usually offers improvement in the selectivity and
orientation of the sensitive axis.
Capacitive Pressure Sensor
• The flexure is in this case a membrane rather than a beam.
• An absolute pressure sensor uses a sealed cavity, as shown.
• A gauge or differential pressure sensor would require a port into the
enclosed cavity.
Condenser Microphone
• “Condenser” is an old term for a capacitor.
• Condenser microphones are the laboratory standard for acoustic
pickups. They have extremely flat frequency response.
• Condenser microphones require a DC bias to operate.
• The cavity must be acoustically tuned by proper porting.
Capacitive Tactile Sensor
• This design offers both
vertical and tilt sensing by
using a pair of electrodes in
the cavity floor.
• The cavity is created by a
wafer bonding technique.
• The tactile sensing bump is
created by deep anisotropic
wet etching.
Capacitive Shear Stress Sensor
• Viscous flow across
the moveable
element creates a
change in the relative
capacitance on the
two sides of the
bridge circuit.
• The bridge circuit is
AC excited to
increase its
sensitivity.
• The capacitances
involved are still
very small!
Electrostatic Forces and Actuation
• Thomson’s Theorem: The charges on a system of conductors come to rest
in a configuration which minimizes the energy of the associated
electrostatic field.
• If the conductors are mechanically altered in their configuration, the
charges will rearrange themselves to produce a new minimum energy
electrostatic field. However, this new energy minimum may be different
than the preceding one.
• If the new energy minimum is greater than the previous one, then work
must be performed on the system by the mechanical alteration.
Mechanical motion is opposed by an electrostatic resisting force.
• If the new energy minimum is less than the previous one, then work is
extracted from the system by the mechanical alteration. Mechanical
motion is aided by an electrostatic driving force.
• For motion along specific coordinates x, y, z, the mechanical force can be
determined from the principle of virtual work:
Note the analogous
∂W ∂W ∂W form to E = −∇ψ.
Fx = − Fy = − Fz = − F = −∇W
∂x ∂y ∂z R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Example: Parallel Plate Electrostatic Actuator
ε ab
• Capacitance: C=
d
ε abV 2
• Electrostatic energy: W = 12 CV 2 =
2d
∂W ∂ ⎡ ε abV 2 ⎤ ε abV 2 CV 2
• Mechanical force: F = − =− ⎢ ⎥= =
∂d ∂d ⎣ 2d ⎦ 2d 2
2d
x
+Q
d Moveable upper plate at x = d.
force F V The force is attractive, regardless of

the polarity of the applied voltage.
0
Fixed lower plate at x = 0.
−Q
Equilibrium Position
• If the motion of the moveable plate is hindered by a spring force, a
static equilibrium position will be established by Fcap + Fspring = 0:
F ε abV 2
Fspring = k (d 0 − d ) Fcap =
2d 2
unstable solutions
ε abV32 stable solutions

2d 2 V3 > V2 > V1
ε abV22
2d 2
ε abV12
2d 2
d = height of moveable plate
0
0 d0
displacement R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Equilibrium Position
• Equating the spring force to the electrostatic (capacitive) force
yields a cubic equation for the static position:
ε abV 2
k (d 0 − d ) = 2kd 2 (d 0 − d ) = ε abV 2
2d 2
• Assumptions:
– The spring force is linear.
– The capacitor plates remain parallel and aligned through their travel.
• For small displacements about this equilibrium position:
∆d 2ε a bV
=−
∆V kd (3d − d 0 )

Snap Down
• If the applied voltage is increased beyond a certain point, VP, there will no
longer be a solution, and the moveable plate will snap down all the way.
F This point occurs when the two

Fspring = k (d 0 − d ) lines are just tangent at a single
point, as shown:
ε abVP2 ε abVP2
Fcap =
2d 2 F = k (d 0 − d ) =
2d 2
dF ε abVP2
= −k = −
dd d3
kd P = 2k (d 0 − d P ) or d P = 23 d 0
3 3
8 k d k d
VP2 = 0
= P
27ε ab ε ab
0
0 dP d0 d
Transverse Electrostatic Actuator
• Use changes in capacitor plate overlap area rather than plate
separation. This creates a more linear force-distance relationship.
ε 0 (a − s )b ε 1s b 1
C= + W = CV =
1
2 [ε 0 (a − s)b + ε1sb]V 2
2
d d 2d
∂W 1 Note that the force is now independent
F =− =− (ε1 − ε 0 )bV 2 of position of the slab, s.
∂s 2d
b
+Q a
force dielectric slab

V d
ε0 ε1 > ε0
−Q s
Electrostatic Plunger Actuator
• This involves a combination of the above – both transverse and
vertical capacitive contributions:
ε sb ε sb ε d 2 b
C = Csides + Cend = + + This ignores the 2D field fringing.
d1 d3 a−s
ε ⎛ sb
sb d 2b ⎞ 2 ∂W
W = CV = ⎜⎜ + +
1 2
⎟⎟V F =− =
2
2 ⎝ d1 d 3 a − s ⎠ ∂s
ε⎛b b⎞ 2 ε d2 b
b ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟V + V 2
a 2 ⎝ d1 d 3 ⎠ 2( a − s ) 2
d3 By making (a – s) >> d1, d3, the
force
nonlinear component can be
+Q d2
minimized.
−Q d1 V Note: if the plunger is not
centered in the socket, there will
s also exist a sideways force.
Comb Drive Actuator Geometry
Comb Drive Actuator Geometry – Top View
d
W
s
L
Lateral Comb Drive Actuator
• Height of polysilicon = H. (H = 2.0 µm for Poly1 in MUMPs.)
• Capacitance of overlap field: ε Hs
Clap =
• Capacitance of end fringe field: Cend. d
• If L >> s, then Cend ≈ constant, independent of s.
• Capacitance of each fixed/movable finger pair = Cfp = Clap + Cend
• Electrostatic energy of each finger pair = Wfp = ½CfpV2.
• Electrostatic attractive force of each finger pair:
∂Wfp ε HV 2 Notice that this independent
Ffp = − =−
∂s 2d of the overlap s.
• Example:
– V = 10 Volts, H = 2.0 µm, d = 1.0 µm, ε = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m.
– Ffp = 8.854 × 10−4 µN.
– To produce 1.0 µN would require 1130 finger pairs: 565 fixed fingers
and 565 movable fingers and 1 extra, either fixed or movable.
Transverse Comb Drive Actuator
Note: This drive only produces force if the fingers have an asymmetrical rest position.
Note: This also produces an instability if the fingers of a lateral comb drive are not
centered.
Lateral Comb Drive Actuator
Note: The design of most comb drives would try to minimize the finger end capacitances.
Tilting Plate Electrostatic Actuator
• An example problem, typical of some early capacitive accelerometers.
b
c a
flexible
hinge
center
of mass

Tilting Plate Electrostatic Actuator
• Angle of deflection = θ.
• After deflection, the plates are no longer parallel.
c a
θ
flexible
hinge
center
of mass
d − c sin θ d − (a + c) sin θ
d
θ max = sin −1
a+c

Tilting Plate Capacitance
• If θ is small, the electric field is nearly perpendicular to the plates.
Integrate over the plate area to obtain the capacitance:
50
50
a+c
dx
C = εb ∫c
d − x sin θ
=
Example:
40
ε b ⎛ d − c sin θ ⎞ a = 50 µm, b = 50 µm,
ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
sin θ ⎝ d − (a + c) sin θ ⎠
30 c = 20 µm, d = 2.0 µm;
C( θ i) ⋅ fF
−1
θmax = 0.033 rad = 1.91°
20
ε ab
C0 = = 11.07 fF 10
d
Note that it is an error to 0 0

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
try to average the gap
0 θi θ max
spacing!
Tilting Plate Electrostatic Torque
∂W ε bV 2 ⎛ a+c c 1 ⎛ d − c sin θ ⎞ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
T =− =
∂θ 2 tan θ ⎜ d − (a + c) sin θ − d − c sin θ − sin θ ln⎜⎜ d − (a + c) sin θ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠
200
200
W = 12 CV 2 =
ε bV 2 ⎛ d − c sin θ ⎞
ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ V = 10.0 Volts
2 sin θ ⎝ d − (a + c) sin θ ⎠ 150
ε abV 2
T ( θ i) ⋅ µN
−1 −1
F0 = 2
⋅ µm 100
2d
= 0.277 µN
⎛ a⎞
T0 = F0 ⎜ c + ⎟ 50
⎝ 2⎠
ε abV 2 ⎛ a ⎞
= ⎜c + ⎟
2d 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 0 0
= 9.68 µNµm 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0 θi θ max

Electrostatic Deflection of a Cantilever
• Cantilevers bend along their entire length during deflection, and if the
distance from the cantilever to a fixed driving electrode varies, the
capacitance along its length will also vary. This leads to a complex
interconnected problem to determine the cantilever’s deflection U(x).
y
0 −U(x) L x
d = gap spacing without deflection

Deflection of Beams
• P(x) = Beam loading: force per unit length [N/m].
• V(x) = Beam shear force: [N].
• M(x) = Beam bending moment: [N-m].
• θ(x) = Slope of the deflection: [dimensionless].
• U(x) = Beam deflection: [m].
d 2U
dU 1 dx 2 d 2
U dθ
θ ( x) = curvature: κ = = ≈ 2 =
dx ρ ⎡ ⎛ dU ⎞ 2 ⎤ 3 / 2
dx dx
M ( x) 1 d 2U ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
=κ = ≈ 2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎥⎦
EI ρ dx
dM dV (ρ = radius of curvature)
V ( x) = − P( x) = −
dx dx
d 2
⎛ d 2U ⎞
Beam bending equation: P( x) = 2 ⎜⎜ EI ⎟ (4th order diff. eqn.)
dx ⎝ dx 2 ⎟⎠
Moment of Inertia for a Rectangular Beam
• Bending of a beam produces both tensile and compressive strains.
The moment of inertia summarizes this strain distribution into a
single measure of resilience against bending.
y b y
+h/2
TENSION
x σ, ε
M M COMPRESSION
−h/2
The neutral axis is where the net tension and compression equals zero.
3 +h/ 2
+h / 2by bh 3
Moment of inertia: I zz ∫ y dA ∫ y b dy
= 2
= 2
= =
Area −h / 2 3 −h / 2
12
reaction
Tip-Loaded Cantilever – 1
force and
moment: applied force: F
M = FL
free end condition

F 0 L x
fixed support
P(x) Loading:
x
P( x) = + Fδ ( x) − Fδ ( x − L)
V(x) Shear:
x
V ( x) = − F over [0, L]
M(x) Bending Moment:
x
M ( x) = F ⋅ ( x − L)
boundary condition: M(L) = 0 R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
P(x) Loading:
x
P( x) = + Fδ ( x) − Fδ ( x − L)
V(x) Shear:
x
V ( x) = − F over [0, L]
x
M ( x) = F ⋅ ( x − L)
θ(x) Deflection Slope: 2
x F FL
θ ( x) = ( x − L) 2 −
2 EI 2 EI
U(x) Deflection:
x
2 3
F FL x FL
U ( x) = ( x − L) 3 − +
6 EI 2 EI 6 EI
Boundary conditions for integrations:
V(L) = 0, M(L) = 0, θ(0) = 0, U(0) = 0.
FL3
• Evaluating the displacement at the tip end: U ( L) = −
3EI
• This gives an equivalent spring constant of:
−F 3EI Ebh 3
k= = 3 =
U ( L) L 4 L3

Uniformly Loaded Cantilever – 1
• Situation for an electrostatic cantilever actuator, where the
electrode runs the full length of the cantilever, and where the
cantilever undergoes only small deflection.
• Derivation and profiles shown on next slide.
FL3 3FL3
• Resulting tip deflection: U ( L) = − =−
8 EI 2 Ebh 3
−F 2 Ebh 3
• Effective spring constant: k= =
U ( L) 3L3
• The tip deflection is 3/8 of the value for the tip-loaded case for the
same overall net force F.

Uniformly Loaded Cantilever – 2
P(x) Loading:
x F
P( x) = − over [0, L]
L
V(x) Shear:
x F
V ( x) = − ( x − L)
L
x F
M ( x) = − ⋅ ( x − L) 2
2L
θ(x) Deflection Slope: 2
x F FL
θ ( x) = − ( x − L) 3 −
6 EIL 6 EI
U(x) Deflection:
x
2 3
F FL x FL
U ( x) = − ( x − L) 4 − +
Boundary conditions for integrations: 24 EIL 6 EI 24 EI
V(L) = 0, M(L) = 0, θ(0) = 0, U(0) = 0.
Electrostatic Beam Micro Relay
Image from Zavracky, et al., JMEMS 1997. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Electrostatic Beam Micro Relay
Image from Hyman and Mehregany, IEEE Trans. Comp. Pack. Tech. 1999. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Mercury-Wetted Electrostatic Micro Relay
Image from Saffer, Simon, and Kim, Proc. SPIE 2882, 1999. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Cantilever Beam Electrostatic Switches
Singly supported:
Doubly supported:
Images from de los Santos, et al., Proc. IEEE Aerospace Conf., 1997. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Electrostatic RF Switch
Metal membrane actuator.
Texas Instruments design.
Tension of membrane
provides faster opening
response.
Recessed electrode avoids
short-circuit on closure.
Geometry provides RF
impedance matching from
input to output pad.
Switches are useful from
DC up to >40 GHz.
Insertion losses < 0.5 dB
(typical).
Image from Goldsmith, et al., IEEE MTT Symp. 1995. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011
Electrostatic RF Switches
OPEN POSITION
Conductive Cantilever Capacitive Membrane
CLOSED POSITION
Snap down
Spring up
* curve from
Petersen
Vu Vd
true-time-delay (TTD) transmit/receive (T/R)
phase shifter switch
Simulations from J. Xu and R. B. Darling, 1999. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

Circuit Interactions of Electrostatic Actuators
• The defining relation Q = CV still holds.
• The capacitance becomes time-dependent: C = C(t).
– This causes some inconsistencies in many SPICE circuit simulators.
– Charge is not necessarily conserved in all SPICE implementations.
• If the actuator is held at a constant voltage, then current must
flow into or out of the actuator as the capacitance changes:
dQ dC
I= = V
dt dt
• If the actuator is held at a constant charge (I = 0), then the
voltage must change as the capacitance changes:
dQ dC dV dV V dC dV dC
I= = V +C =0 =− or =−
dt dt dt dt C dt V C

Circuit Interaction of Electrostatic RF Switch
Vs
Saber Simulation Results
Large increase in capacitance upon switch closure

causes very high inrush currents which demands
high compliance from the drive circuitry.
Simulations from J. Xu and R. B. Darling, 1999. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

Electrostatic Sensors Actuators

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Electrostatic Sensors Actuators

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EE-502 / ME-504 / MSE-504:

Introduction to Microelectromechanical Systems

Electrostatic Sensors and Actuators

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

• Review of electrostatics and capacitance

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

y Q1 E-field Q1 (r1 ) Q1 (r1 ) ⋅ (r − r1 )

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

• The media is characterized by D = εE, and if ε is a constant, then,

ε R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

parallel plate cylindrical spherical

• Parallel plate example:

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

force F V The force is attractive, regardless of

ε abV32 stable solutions

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

F This point occurs when the two

force dielectric slab

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

Note that it is an error to 0 0

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

d = gap spacing without deflection

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

free end condition

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

Conductive Cantilever Capacitive Membrane

Simulations from J. Xu and R. B. Darling, 1999. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

Saber Simulation Results

Large increase in capacitance upon switch closure

Simulations from J. Xu and R. B. Darling, 1999. R. B. Darling / EE-502 / Autumn 2011

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