Instrumentation

L4 Passive Sensors Example: Strain Gauges, and

system design.

Prof. J.W.McBride
 Strain Gauge (Passive R sensor)

• Attached to cantilever x
F
• Measures force (F) at end
d
• Force related to strain at distance (x)
from free end
1 6.F .x
• Beam is of thickness (d) and width (b) ε= .
E bd 2
• Typical strain gauges
– Bonded metal foil
– Sputter deposited thin metal film
– Bonded semi-conductor
– Thick film
 Strain Gauge Equation
ρL
R=
A
• Length of the gauge changes from L to (L + ∆L)
• Resistance of the gauge changes by a corresponding R to (R + ∆R)

• Differentiate with respect to the applied stress gives (σ):

dR ∂R dL ∂R dA ∂R dρ
= . + . + .
dσ ∂L dσ ∂A dσ ∂ρ dσ

• Then applied to equation:

dR ρ dL ρL dA L dρ
= . − 2 . + .
d σ A d σ A d σ A dσ

• or if referred to an initial resistance, R:

1 dR 1 dL 1 dA 1 dρ
• (Eq. 1) .= . − . + .
R dσ L dσ A dσ ρ dσ
 Strain Gauge Equation

• For a circular conductor, the cross-sectional area (A) is proportional to the

diameter (D) squared: A ∝ D2
dA
∴ ∝ 2D
dD
dA dD
∴ =2
A D
∆A ∆D
∴ =2
A D
• Poisson’s ratio ν, a material constant, is given by:
∆D ∆L
= −ν
D L

Lateral strain
ν= −
Longitudinal strain

∆A ∆L
• Hence: = − 2ν
A L
• Eq. 1 can be rewritten in terms of parameter change (Δ):
∆R ∆L ∆A ∆ρ
= − +
R L A ρ
• Substituting for ΔA/A:
∆R ∆L ∆ρ
= (1 + 2ν ) +
R L ρ
• The gauge factor of a strain gauge is usually a specified characteristic. Defined as the
change of resistance over the original resistance for a given strain:
∆R / R  ∆ρ / ρ 
G= G = 1 + 2ν +  
ε  ∆L / L 
• The last term in this equation is the relationship of resistivity with the strain, and for all
metals will remain constant. Hence the last term can be ignored FOR metallic gauges.

• For most metals the value of Poisson’s ratio is commonly between 0.3 and 0.5. A typical
value for gauge factor for a Cu/Ni gauge is G = 2.

• Main source of error with strain measurement is caused by temperature variation

• Temperature compensation is achieved by mounting an unstrained dummy gauge on the

same structure, and using the pair as adjacent arms of a Wheatstone bridge
Semi-Conductor Strain Gauges
• More expensive, fragile and difficult to use

• Advantage is a very high gauge factor of about ±130 allowing the measurement
of small strains

• Resistance change comes from the piezo-resistance effect represented by the

last term in equation:
 ∆ρ / ρ 
G = 1 + 2ν +  
 ∆L / L 

• Problem with this type of device is that it is non-linear, e.g.

– at 0.2% strain, G=130
– at 0.4% strain, G=112

• Gauge factor also varies significantly with temperature

 Summary Gauge Factor
The gauge factor, G, of a strain gauge is the fractional change of resistance
divided by the fractional change in length along the active axis.

∆R R ∆R R
G= =
∆  ε
Foil and wire gauges are made from materials such as annealed copper,
copper-nickel alloy and nickel-chromium alloy. G ≈ 2.

Semiconductor gauges have greater sensitivity G ≈ 100 - 120.

More sensitive to temperature.
More expensive ≈ 10 x cost of foil gauge.
Brittle
Used where high sensitivity is required.
7
Unbalanced Quarter Bridge
• In many applications the detector is used to monitor the output voltage, and not to
balance the bridge

• Quarter Bridge

• Suppose all resistances are the same

• RCB is a strain gauge of resistance R

initially and R + δR when under strain
V
• If the current through the detector is zero

Then: V AC = Ι1 R and VBC = I 2 (R + δR )

Now: Ι1 = V and Ι 2 =
V
2R 2 R + δR
Since: V BA = V BC − V AC
If δR is small and δR << R: 4 R + 2δR ~
− 4R
 R + δR R 
=V − 
 2 R + δR 2 R 
δR can be positive or negative
 2 R + 2δR − 2 R − δR 
=V 
 4 R + 2δR  Therefore: VδR
VBA − ±
~
4R
Thus: V = VδR
4 R + 2δR
BA

• Strain Gauge Example

∆R / R δR
G = Gauge factor = or: = Gε
∆L / L R

Then: V = V = ± VGε or: ε = 4Vout

out BA
4 VG
Strain Gauge using Thevenin Model
• For the Quarter bridge shown: R1 //R2
R1 = R2 = R3 = R and R4 = R + δR

 2 R + δR  VδR
V − = R2
−
R4
 2 R 2 R + δR  4 R + 2δR V
R1 +R2 R3 +R4

R1 // R2 = R / 2 and R3 //R4 = R
(R + δR ) R3 //R4

2 R + δR

R R ( R + δR )
RTH = +
2 2 R + δR
A

R
Vout TH Z
d

B
Half Bridge
Here:
VAC = I1 R and VBC = I 2 ( R + δR)
V V
Ι1 = and Ι 2 =
2 R + δR 2 R + δR

VBA = VBC − V AC

 R + δR R 
=V − 
 2 R + δR 2 R + δR 
V
 δR   VδR 
=V ≈  
 2 R + δR   2 R 
Full Bridge
• Here we have all arms as transducers

V
• Sensitivity increased further:

VBA = V δR / R
AC Bridges

• Many inductance or capacitance sensors are used as part of an AC

Bridge
• The bridge produces zero output for a zero input, and it is ideal for
differential (push-pull) type transducers
• The differential (push-pull) transducer produces a more linear relationship
between the bridge output and the measurand than a single element
transducer
• It is usual to replace one side of an AC Bridge by a transformer
– This ensures that the two sides of the bridge are excited in opposition with
equal magnitude
– The transformer is either centre-tapped or has two identical secondary
windings
Push-Pull Sensors (i.e. differential output )
• Can be connected in two ways, consider the case of variable inductance
transducers in a positive bridge:
(a) Sensors on one side of the bridge (b) Either side of the detector

• At balance the bridge must satisfy two conditions:

1. Real part of out-of-balance voltage is zero
2. Imaginary part of out-of-balance voltage is zero

• If the inductors are of low resistance, then the contribution to the out-of-balance
voltage is small
Thevenin Models for L and C sensors
• For circuit (a), the output will be given by:

Vs ∂L
Vout =
2 L

• Similarly, if we replaced the inductors (L) with capacitors (C):

Vs ∂C
Vout =
2 C

• Both are examples of a Half Bridge where: Vs

Vout ∝
2
Full Bridge Example
• Consider a cantilever example
Strain Gauges F
• 4 metallic strain gauges (2 top, 2 bottom)
with Gauge Factor, G = 2

• Strain Gauges are configured as a full bridge and connected to a differential

amplifier, gain 200

• For each gauge:

G1, 4 = R ± δR
G2,3 = R  δR

• Vin is 9V
• Draw the Thevenin Equivalent:
∂R
VTH = Vin
R
∂R
Vout = Vin ⋅ GAIN
R

∂R
Vin = {v1 − v2 } Differential Voltage
R

• Calculate the sensitivity of the circuit,

output / unit ε
∂R
∂R
G= R =2 ∴ = G ⋅ ε = 2ε
STRAIN R Sensitivity is output / ε hence:
Sensitivity is 3600 V per unit ε
∂R
Vout = Vin ⋅ GAIN = 9 × 2ε × 200 = 3600ε
R
Or in more meaningful units:
3.6mV per unit με
Summary and Key Points

• The strain gauge equation has been defined, and then linked to
Thevenin models for connection to a differential op amp. This is a key
aspect of system design, defining the sensitivity of a instrumentation
system. (Vout/ per unit input).

• Remember the (Max) Vout from the op amp should match the FS input
voltage of an Analogue to Digital Converter ADC.

• Thevenin models have been introduced for L and C transducers.