Sensor and Measurement

Resistive Sensors

Fall, 2020
Prof. Jungkeun Park
 Outline

§ Resistive Sensors
– Potentiometers; 2.1
– Strain gauge; 2.2
– Resistive temperature detector (RTDs); 2.3
– Thermistor; 2.4
– Light dependent resistor (LDRs); 2.6
– Resistive hygrometer; 2.7
– Resistive gas sensor; 2.8
– Liquid conductivity sensor; 2.9

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 Resistive sensors

§ Potentiometers
– Resistive device with linear or rotary sliding contact

x l
R = r = RM ( r ) ´ a
A A
 Power Rating

§ Power rating
– The highest power input allowed to flow through particular
equipment
§ Temperature change may arise
– not only from fluctuation in ambient temperature, but also from
self-heating due to finite power that the potentiometer dissipates.
– The maximum RMS value of the applied voltage Vr

𝑉! < 𝑃! 𝑅"

𝑉!# 𝑅" < 𝑃!

 Dual Potentiometer

§ Single motion to adjust output voltage

Potentiometer specification
§ 5 considering points of potentiometer
– Uniformity is assumed within input range
– Inductance and capacitance should be insignificant
– Resistor drift due to temperature
– Friction and inertia of the wiper(moving contact part of
potentiometer)
– Noise associated with the wiper contact à resolution
§ Thevenin equivalent circuit for potentiometer

– The output voltage depends on both the supply voltage and the
wiper position
– Potentiometers can be often directly connected to analog-to-
digital converters without any interfacing amplifier

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 Tilt Sensors using Potentiometer

§ Electrolytic or liquid potentiometer

– Arranged for the tilt sensing
– 경사각 따른 전해질 혹은 전도성 액체의 방향에 따라 변하는 저항
을 활용
– 10-8 rad 정도의 resolution 가능하나 반응 속도가 비교적 느린 편
Level sensor and Force sensitive resistor

§ Level sensor
– Hydraulic pressure shortens non-immersed strip
§ Force sensitive resistor
– Conductance is proportional to applied force

응용:
-평면 압력 측정(환자 진단)
-재활치료시 힘의 측정
-무는 힘의 측정
-촉각센서
-좌석 착석 여부 체크
-골프 글러브에서 힘의 분포 측정
-조이 스틱의 힘의 측정
Sensing Cable for water, liquids, solvents

Swelled conductive
polymer가 potentiometer
역할 수행
• Fuel, water,
• conductive liquids
• Solvents 등
• 액체류 leakage 검출
 2.2 Strain Gages
§ Strain gage
– Based on variation of conductor
resistance under mechanical stress l
R=r
A
dR dr dl dA
= + -
R r l A
Mechanical Stress
F dl
s = = Ee = E
A l
e : strain
E : Young's modulus
 Strain Gage: Resistance Change
with Strain
§ Resistance derivation via strain

dt / t
Poisson's ratio: n = - p lD 2
dl / l V=
4
For a circular shape wire,
dV dl 2dD dl
p D2 = + = (1 - 2n )
A= V l D l
4 dR dl dl
dA 2dD 2dl = [1 + 2n + C (1 - 2n )] = G = Ge
= = -2n R l l
A D l dR
dr dV R = R0 + dR = R0 (1 + ) @ R0 (1 + Ge )
=C R0
r V
C: Bridgman’s constant 𝑅 = 𝑅$ (1 + 𝑥)
§ Ex 2.1
– 350ohm strain gage with G=2.1 is attached to aluminum strut (E
= 73GPa).
– Outside diameter 50mm, inside diameter 47.5mm
– With 1000kg load, compute the change in resistance
§ Variable resistance type strain gage 특징
– Applied stress must not exceed the elastic limit of the gage
– Measurement is correct only if all the stress is transmitted to the
gage
– Assume all strains are in the same plane
– Temperature interference occurs
Foil strain gage paprameters
Foil strain gage installation
Strain Gage types
 Strain Gage Application
§ Variable resistance
detection is usually
implemented by
Wheatstone bridge
configuration
 Strain Gauge

§ Strain gauge
– A resistive element used to measure strain on an object
– Contains one or more thin conductive strips
– Strip shrink
• Length decrease
• Area increase
à Resistor decrease L
R=
– Strip Stretch sA
• Length increase
• Area decrease
à Resistor increase

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_gauge#/media/File:Strain_gauge.svg

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 Strain Gauge

§ Gauge factor (GF)

– Ratio between change in resistance and change in length

DR / R
GF =
DL / L
§ Strain (ε)
DL
e=
L

§ Change in resistance due to strain

DR = R0GFe

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 Wheatstone Bridge

§ Small scale of the change in resistance of strain gauge

– e.g.) 1.2Ω for a 120 Ω gauge
§ Strain gauge + Wheatstone bridge à increase sensitivity

R1 R4 F0

h width: w

R2 R3

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 Wheatstone Bridge

R1 R4 DR
Vab = VS = VS (GF )e
Vs
+ Va Vb R
- 6 LF0
= VS (GF ) 2
R2 R3 wh Y

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§ Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
– Usual material:
• PRTs: Platinum Resistance Thermometers

R = R0 [1 + a1 (T - T0 ) + a 2 (T - T0 )2 + ... + a n (T - T0 )n ]
For platinum,
a1 = 3.95 ´ 10 -3 / K , a 2 = -5.83 ´ 10 -7 / K 2
– Eq. 2.19 사용시,
• self heating은 없도록 해야함(Heat dissipation 은 HD constant 혹은
factor로 표시됨)
• Conductor의 melting point 근처에서는 측정 불가함
 Example 2.2
§ PRT에서
– self heating error 고려한 전류량 계산
– Heat dissipation constant / heat dissipation factor
!!
• 𝛿= (mW/K)
∆#
• 𝑃$ : dissipating power
• ∆𝑇: temperature increment

§ Example 2.2
– PRT: 100Ω
– 𝛿 = 6mW/K
– Maximal current through the sensor to keep the self-heating error
below 0.1℃
§ tables
– 기계적 strain은 유사한 효과로 전기적 저항을 변화시키므로 RTD
의 온도 측정 범위를 제한함
– RTD의 금속 프로브 사용시, linear range에서

R = R0 [1 + a (T - T0 )]
– 𝛼 is termed temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) or
sometimes relative sensitivity
() 𝑅 − 𝑅% 𝑆
Sensitivity: 𝑆 = = 𝛼𝑅% 𝛼= =
(# (𝑇 − 𝑇% )𝑅% 𝑅%
– Ex. 2.3
• PRT: 100Ω
• 𝛼=0.00389 (Ω/Ω)/K at 0℃
• Calculate its sensitivity and 𝛼 at 25℃ and 50℃

• 𝑆 = 𝛼% 𝑅% = 𝛼&' 𝑅&' = 𝛼'% 𝑅'%

§ 개스가 촉매에 닿으면
온도가 올라가서(Active
Pellistor) Gas의 농도
측정 가능
§ Passive Pellistor는 주
변 온도/습도 등의 영향
보상용
 2.4 Thermistors
§ Thermistor: Thermally sensitive
resistor based on semiconductors
– NTC: Negative Temperature Coefficient
– PTC: Positive Temperature Coefficient
§ 참고: RTD is based on conductors

RT = R o e B (1/ T -1/ To )
T in Kelvins
B(b ): characteristic temperature of the material
Relative Sensitivity:
dR / dT B
a= T =- 2
RT T
RTD(PT100)보다 10배 이상 Sensitive
 Example 2.4
§ Alternative thermistor model
– 𝑅! = 𝑅" 𝑒 #(&⁄!'&⁄!!) = 𝑅" 𝑒 '# ⁄!! 𝑒 # ⁄! = 𝐴𝑒 # ⁄!
– Determine A for a unit having B = 4200K and 100 KΩ at 25℃
– Calculate 𝛼 at 0℃ and 50℃
 Example 2.5
§ Calculate B for an NTC thermistor that has
– 5000Ω at 25℃
– 1244Ω at 60℃

ln( R2 / R1 )
B= = BT1 / T2
1 / T1 - 1 / T2
 Three Parameter model
§ Three parameter model
– reduces error up to 0.01 degree celsius
– Empirical equation of the TP model

( A+ B / T + C / T 3 )
RT = e
or
1
= a + b ln RT + c(ln RT )3
T

§ Four parameter model

– 0.00015 degree celsius
§ Thermistor 응용 중
– 저항-온도 특성 대신 themistor current와 voltage drop 을 이용할
수도 있음
§ Thermistor voltage-temperature 관계식 2.33 유도
 2.6 Light-Dependent Resistors
/Photo Resistors
§ LDR: 소자에 빛을 비추면 저항
이 감소하는 성질 이용
R = A ´ En-a
c´h 0.7 < a < 0.9
l=
E EV : Illumination (lux)
• Plank constant
• ℎ = 6.62×10*+, 𝐽 6 𝑠
• Energy E
• Velocity of light
• 𝑐 = 300𝑀𝑚/𝑠
 LDR applications
§ TV 밝기 및 contrast 자동 조정
§ 카메라 노출 자동 조정
§ 자동 헤드라이트 조정 장치
§ 불꽃 검출
§ 가로등 자동 스위치
§ 연기 감지기
§ 카드리더
§ 도둑 경보기
§ 계수기
§ 탱크 수위 측정….
 2.7 Resistive Hygrometers
§ 공기 중에 있는 습도 측정
– Usually relative humidity is measured
– Pressure of water vapor present as a percentage of saturated gas
§ 습기는 물질의 저항을 감소시킴
 2.8 Resistive Gas Sensors
§ 섭씨 700도 이상에서 반도체 산
화물에 흡착되거나 흡수된 산소 p 개스의 연소 이용한 농도
가 전자를 빼앗으며 산소 이온 측정(300~500℃)
으로 변함(𝑂) )è 저항 증가 1)연소가능한 기체가 산화철 표면에
§ Conductivity 변화 이용 산소 분 흡수된 산소와 반응
압 측정: 𝑂 ' 2) 흡수된 산소 감소
3) 저항 변화
. n-type oxide: 저항 감소
. p-type oxide: 저항 증가
s = Ae- E A /( kT )
( PO2 )1/ N
A : 상수
E A : Activation energy for conduction
PO2 : 산소 분압
N : -4 < N < -6
Gas Sensor
 2.9 Liquid conductivity sensor
§ 물에 녹아 있는 전해
질의 농도에 따른 전
기 저항 변화 이용
§ Total current via charge transport
– Sum of charge transport
𝑛: number of ions of one polarity
(nqv) + + (nqv) - 𝑞: its charge
I=
l 𝑣: its velocity
𝑙: distance between anode and cathode
– Thus conductivity

I × l (nqv) + + (nqv) - 𝐴: effective cross-sectional area of the

s= = conductivity cell
VA l
l
=
VA
= ( Nqv) + + ( Nqv) -
 Summary – resistive sensors

§ Potentiometer
§ Strain gage
§ RTDs
§ Thermistor
§ LDRs
§ Resistive hygrometer
§ Resistive gas sensor
§ Liquid conductivity sensor