Strain measurement

Strain Measurement

Deformation per unit length

Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of
lateral strain to Axial strain,

Strain
dl
a 
L
l
Poisson’ ratio  
a
 Types Strain Measurements

Direct strain measurement – DM By

measuring the change in length
Electric resistance type – Strain gages: by
measuring the changes in resistance
Photoelasticity methods – Morie’s
Technique, by observing the optical
interference. Its an experimental technique
used for strain measurement in transparent
materials.
 Electrical Resistance strain gages

Electrical resistance of a wire changes when it

is mechanically strained
L
The resistance of a wire is given by R
A
Differentiating dR d  dL dA
  
R  L A
dA dD
Area may be related to D2, hence 2
A D
In terms axial strain and poisson’s ratio
dR d
  a (1  2 ) 
R 
Gauge factor is the relative change in electrical resistance to
the mechanical strain

1 dR dR dL
Define gage factor F  /
a R R L
Substitute the relevant terms
1 d
F  (1  2 ) 
a 
The strain is expressed in terms of gage factor and
resistance 1 dR
a 
F R
Here gage factor and resistance of the wire are manufacture
specifications and hence the unknown strain in only a
function of change in resistance.
Most of the strain gages, resistivity will not change for
wide range of strain and hence, the gage factor will be

F  1  2
For typical possion’s ratio 0.3; F = 1.6

For most of the commercial strain gages, the gage factor

for both compression and tensile load will be the same.

Commercial strain gage wire (copper or Iron) sizes varies

from 0.0012 to 0.025 mm

Strain gages are bonded with the specimen by either

phenolic acid or nitrocellulose cement
Types of Electrical Resistance Strain Gages
 Wire gage
 Foil gage
 Semiconductor
Construction of Strain Gages
Different types of strain gage wires
and their properties
 Problems Associated With Strain Gages

 Temperature effects:
 difference in thermal expansion between the resistance
element and the bonding material.
 change in resistance of the gage with temperature.
Temperature compensation circuit circuit requird
 Moisture effect: Moisture absorbed by the bonding
agent change the resistance between the gage and
the ground, and thus affect the output resistance.
Providing proper moisture proof.
 Wiring problems: Due to loose connection and
improper grounding.
 Potentiometers
 Potentiometers are used as displacement sensors for
measurement of linear and angular displacements.
 They are the resistive type of transducers. The output voltage
is proportional to the displacement and is given by:
xi
eo  E
xt
xi is the input displacement,
xt is the total displacement and
E is the supply voltage (a) Linear (b)
rotary
Though simple, contact problems resulting out of wear and tear
between the moving and the fixed parts limits the application of
 Rp = Total potentiometer resistance
Rm = Meter resistance
Xi = position of wiper w.r.t zero position
Xt = total length of the wiper
eo 1

ex Rp  xi  xi
 1  
Rm  xt  xt
eo xi
For ideal condition (Rp/Rm 
ex xt
=0)
The maximum error is 12 % of FS if Rp/Rm
=1 and drops to 1.5% when Rp/Rm =0.1
max .eex  P Rp
where, P = limit of heat dissipation is P watts,
For a wire wound resistance element, if the device has 500 turns on a card 25
mm long, the motion changes smaller than 50 m cannot be detected.
For a single turn rotational device with diameter D, the best angular resolution

0.005to0.010
R esolution  degree where, D in mm
D
 Linear Variable Differential transformer (LVDT)

 LVDT is the most popular type of displacement sensors.

 Principle of variation of mutual inductance.
 Very good linearity over a wide range of displacement.
 Since the mass of the moving body is small, and does not make any
contact with the static part, the frictional resistance is minimized.
 Good dynamic characteristics due to low inertia of the core.
 Extensively used for measurement of time varying displacements.
 Available with full scale displacement range of 0.25mm to ± 25mm.
LVDT works on the principle of variation of the mutual inductance
between two coils with displacement. Construction consists of
(a) a primary winding
(b) two identical secondary windings of a transformer
(c) Ferromagnetic core of annealed Ni-Fe alloy.
All the three coils are wound over a tubular former
The ferromagnetic core can move through the former.
The secondary windings are connected in series opposition so that the
net output voltage is the difference of voltage across the two.
The primary winding is excited by 1-10V r.m.s. A.C. voltage source with
excitation frequency in the range of 50 Hz to 50 KHz.
when the core is at central position (voltage induced in both the
secondary windings are same and the output voltage is zero (since their
difference is zero).
When the core displaces away from the mean central position, the
voltage difference between the two secondary coils do not cancel and
hence an output voltage proportional to the displacement is obtained.
For making the measurement direction
sensitive, a circuit with phase sensitive
detector (PSD) at the output of the LVDT
is used.
The PSD compares the phase of the
secondary output with the primary signal
to judge the direction of movement.
The output of the phase sensitive detector
becomes a d.c voltage for a steady
Output voltage vs. displacement
deflection, after low pass filtering. characteristics of LVDT after
PSD.
Force and Toque Measurement

Lecture-27
 Force Measurement
1
1. Force is defined by F ma (where gc = 1 kg.m/N.s2)
gc
Mass is a fundamental quantity and acceleration a depends on
the standards of two fundamental quantities such as Length
and Time.
2. In case of weight, a = g. The actual value of g depends on
latitude φ and also slightly with time. For given φ ,
g  978.049(1  0.0052884sin 2   0.0000059sin2 2 ) cm / s 2
with the correction factor for altitude h in meters above the MSL
is
Correction  (0.00030855  0.00000022 cos 2 ) h 
h
0.000072( ) 2 cm 2 / s
1000
 Basic Methods of Force Measurement
1. Balancing the unknown force against the known
gravitational force directly or through a system of levers
2. Measuring the acceleration of a body of known mass
which is subjected to an unknown force.
3. Balancing the unknown force against a magnetic force
developed by interaction of a current carrying coil and
a magnet.
4. Transmitting the unknown force into a fluid
5. Measuring the deflection of a elastic member caused by
the unknown force
6. Measuring the change in natural frequency of a wire
tensioned by an unknown force.
Classification of Balances

Source: E.O.Doebelin, Measurements

systems.
 Force Measurement -Balances
Types : Analytical, Pendulum
Scale, or Platform

Analytical Balance:
1. Simplest balance
2. Operates on the principles of moment comparison
The moment produced by the unknown weight or force is compared with
that produced by the known weight or force. When null balance is obtained,
the two weights are equal provided the arm length are equal.
3. Careful design : The frame should be designed in such a way that the center
of mass is only slightly below the knife edge pivot point ( 50 to 200 ).
4. Symmetry of the Frame: Check the arm length by exchanging the known
and unknown weights
 Force Measurement -Balances

For Better Accuracy:

1. Buoyancy forces acting on unknown and known weights

should be considered.
Due to immersion of mass in air.
If the measurement is carried out in vacuum the effect of
buoyancy forces is negligible.
2. Measurement should be taken place in a controlled
temperature chamber. Especially for micro scale
measurement.
 Effect of Buoyancy Force on the Weight Measurement
The two forces exerted on the balance arms are given
by
W1  ( u  a )Vu ; W2  ( s  a )Vs
where u , s and a are densities of unknown weight,
standard weight and air, respectively.
Vu ,Vs are volumes of unknown and standard weights.
The true weights of the unknown and standard weights
are, if the buoyancy force is negligible
Wu  uVu ; Ws  sVs Buoyancy effect will be
more significant for lesser
At null deflection, W1 =
density materials.
W2
  a (  s  u )   a ( s  a ) 
Wu  Ws 1   (or) Wu  Ws  
  s (  u   a 
) 
 s u(    a 
)
Illustrative Example
A quantity of a light weight insulating material having a density of about 24
kg/m3 is weighed on a standard equal –arm balance. Balance conditions are
archived with MS weights totaling 500 g at a ambient temperature of about
30oC. The density of MS may be taken as 8500 kg/m3. Calculate the true
weight of the insulating material and percentage of error caused due to the
buoyancy effect.
Solution
The density of the air at 30oC is
p 1.0132 x 105
a    1.17kg / m3
RT 287 x 303
True weight is given by
 1.17(8500  24) 
Wu  500 1    525.55 g
 8500(24  1.17) 

Error in the measurement = 5.1%

 Pendulum Balance
Deflection type Instrument.
Unknown force is converted to a
torque that is then balanced by the
torque of a fixed standard
mass(pendulum).
Specially shaped sectors and steel
tapes linearize the non-linear
torque-angle relation of a
pendulum.
Unknown force maybe applied
directly or through a system of
levers.
Angular displacement transducer can also measure the
deflection angle which is proportional to the force.
Old Pendulum type Balance
Old-fashioned
Pendulum Balance
(For small range of
force measurement)
 Platform Balance
1. Moments of unknown force is balanced using a system of
levers and standard mass combination.
2. The system is made Null by a proper combination of
weights and lever arm lengths.

3. Measurement of large
forces in terms of much
smaller weights.
4. Reading of the scale is
independent of the location
of force Fi on the platform
if
a c

b d
 Electromagnetic Balance

 Utilizes a photoelectric null detector, an amplifier and a

torque coil in a servo system.
 Electromagnetic force to balance the unknown force
 Used in deflection and null models
 Easy to handle, compact
 Less sensitivity to the environmental change
 Fast response, can be used for dynamic force measurements
 Electrical signal is very convenient for continuous recording
and automatic control of process.
 Balance with built in microprocessor also is available
 Automatic tare-weight systems available for net weight
requirements.
 Load Cells

 Hydraulic and Pneumatic types

 Hydraulic cell uses an incompressible oil
 Cell cavity initially preloaded with oil around 2 bar
 Application of load increases the oil pressure, which is read
on an accurate pressure gauge or Transducer
 Cells are very stiff, deflections only a few thousands of an
inch
 Capacities up to about 5000 tonnes
 Accuracy up to  1% of FS.
 Temperature sensitivity unto  0.25 % for 10oF
 Pneumatic Load Cells
Application of force Fi causes a diaphragm deflection which in turn causes an
increase in pressure po
Increasing the pressure acting on the diaphragm produces an effective force Fp
that tends to return the diaphragm to its initial position.
Pressure under the diaphragm is controlled by both changing the supply
pressure and position of bleed valve.
A typical supply pressure Ps is about 4 bar and the maximum value of Po can not
exceed Ps, this limits Fi to somewhat less than 400 A kN (A= area of diaphragm,
in m2).

Capacity up to about
50,000 tonnes.
Accuracy of 0.1% FS

Po Resolution 0.02%
Ps
 Elastic Load Cells
 Elastic load cells are widely used for both static and dynamic
force measurements ( Frequency about 100 Hz.)
 All are spring and mass systems
 Strain gages may be located to sense the force in terms of
strain.
 Designed for specific directions.
 Load cells are tailored depends on the applications, load
magnitude, nature for the force, etc.

Source: E.O.Doebelin, Measurements

 Bounded Stain gage Transducers
Four strain gages are employed (refer figure). They should be
placed symmetric.
To achieve high accuracy, additional temperature
compensation resistors are used. Further, additional resistors
may also be used for adjusting the input resistance and
sensitivity.

1,3 direct strain and 2,4

transverse strain
Deflection under full load
will be in the order of
0.001 to 0.015 in

Material used SS –
4340, SS-17-4 PH, 2024-
T4 aluminum alloy, etc.
When maximum output is desired, low modulus materials
such as aluminum can be used.
Low modulus usually reduces stiffness leading to excessive
hysteresis, low fatigue life, etc.

Different
types of load
cells and their
ranges
Commercially available load cells
 Piezoelectric load cells
Mainly used for dynamic force measurement.
Cell with large time constant may be used for short term static
force.

Mounting Screws
 Vibrating Wire Transducers

 First natural frequency  of a string of length L and mass

per unit length m, which is tensioned by the force F to be
measured

1 F

2L m

Frequency is measured and then it is related to the applied

force. Frequency is measured by conventional digital counters.
 Wires are thin electrically conducting metals placed in
the fields of permanent magnets.
 Temperature sensitivity ( tension of the wire changes
with temperature)
 Non – Linear relation
Vibrating Wire Transducer Applications
1. Embedded in concrete to measure reinforcing steel stress
2. Underwater crack movement
3. Joint movement between two structural members
4. Minute rotational movement of structural members
 Torque measurement
Torque measurement is the basis of the power measurement / power
required to derive a particular machine etc.
Methods
 Absorption type (Prony Brake) Dissipate mechanical energy as torque.
Mainly used for power measurement.
 Driving type (Dynamo meters). Measure both power and energy
requirement.
 Transmission type (Torque sensors). They are simply placed at an appropriate
location within a machine, for the purpose of sensing the torque. They
neither add to nor subtract energy from the machine.
 Torque, or moment, may be measured by measuring the angular
deformation of a bar or a hollow cylinder.
 The moment is given by
 G ( r04  ri4 )
M 2L

M = Moment , N-m
E
G = Shear modulus of elasticity M/m2 G
2(1   )
ri & r0 = inside and outside radius of cylinder, m
L = Length of the cylinder, m
Φ = angular deflection, rad
A force sometimes may exert a turning effort on a body. Such a
turning effect is called torque or couple.
The torque or the couple = F×b1 – F×b3 = Fb2
The torque T may also be computed by measuring the force F at a
known radius 'r‘ by T=Fr.

Torque measurement is used for the determination of power.

The power P = 2 π NT
 Torque is a measurement of twisting force.
 A 1 foot wrench with 1 pound of force pushing on the end of the wrench
is said to produce 1 foot-pounds of torque.
 There does not need to be motion to create torque, unlike horsepower.
 Torque is a SCALAR measurement, which means it has magnitude only.
 Electric motors can produce torque at zero rpm.
 Engines can’t because they won’t run at low rpm.
 Shaft Power Measurements
Dry friction (Prony brake)
 The absorbing element is brake assembly.
 Power absorbed is carried away by cooling water circulated
 Prony brake friction torque is manually adjusted
 Prony brake

 A flywheel is attached to the rotating shaft.

 Two wooden blocks are mounted diametrically opposite on a flywheel.
 One block carries a lever arm, and an arrangement is provided to tighten the
rope which is connected to the arm.
 Lever arm rests on a scale. As the engine runs, the rope is tightened so that
the RPM is steady. The force and the RPM are noted.
 Torque , T = F. L
 Prony brake was made of wood and leather.

 Wood block mechanism attached to ouput shaft of engine.

 Lever arm rests on a scale

 As engine is run, thumb screws are tightened until rpm is steady.

 Force on scale is read and rpm is recorded.

 Very primitive.
 Power measurement

2 N T P = Power, watts
P N = Speed of the shaft, rpm
60 T = Measured torque, N.m

Torque and speed are measured separately and power is calculated

 Prony Brake at IITG

Force Transducer

Adjustable Pulley
Fluid friction (Air and water brakes, Hydraulic dynamometer)

 Water and air brakes utilize the churning action of paddle wheel or
vanes rotating inside a fluid-filled casing
 The absorbing element is the housing.
 Energy absorption at any given speed is controlled by water flow rate.
They are larger in size.
 Greater the water flow through the dynamometer, greater the braking
action or load
 Water Brake Dynamometer

Works on the principle of viscous coupling.

The output shaft of the engine is coupled
to a fan that spins inside housing housing.
While the engine is running, the housing is
filled with a controlled amount of water.
The more water that is allowed into the
housing, the more load the engine will
feel.
 Water Brake Dynamometer
 As the fan spins, the water is whipped around.
 Water will push the housing with equal and opposite force that the fan is pushing
on the water. Shear forces in the water acts tangential to the housing radius.
 A load cell is oriented perpendicular to the arm extending from the housing at a
measured distance from the center of the housing.
 The torque output of the engine is just the force measured at the load cell
multiplied by the distance to where the extended arm and load cell connect.
2 N T
P
60
 Torsion bar Dynamometer

 Two discs attached to the shaft at two different locations

 Angular moment /displacement is measured using optical gage.
 Using T/J = G/L; the un know Torque T is measured.
 Typical operating ranges : up to 5000 N.m ;
 Accuracy of the system is  2.5% (F.S)
 Strain gauge torque sensors
 Gauges precisely fixed at 45° with the shaft axis
 Set of two, diametrically opposite to each other
 Types
 Hollow cruciform
 Solid
 Square shaft

 Gauges on square, rather than round, cross section has

advantages (Possible to fix the gage without any lateral moment)
 Temperature compensation should be provided
The torque sensor measures the twist or
windup between a rotating drive source and
load source such as an engine crank shaft.
Solid shaft Hollow shaft Square shaft Hollow cruciform
 Commercial strain gage torque sensors
 Ranges are from 0.001 N.m to 80,000 N.m
 Speeds 350 rpm to 24,000 rpm
 Accuracy ± 1%

Strain measured by the strain gage

E
T G
 2(1   )
 GR3
G- Shear modulus ; E- young's modulus and  poison's ratio
 Electric Dynamometers
Eddy current dynamometer:
 Absorption type. Used to measure the power generated by IC engine or
generator.
 Works based on electro magnetic principle. When a conductor moves
though a magnetic flux, voltage is generated, which causes current to flow.
 Load is controlled by adjusting the field current.

Cradled dc dynamometer:
 Both absorption and driving type. Basically it’s a dc motor with suitable
controls to permit operation in either mode.
 Absorption type (Generator): Mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy which is dissipated in resistance disks.
 Heat is dissipated outside the machine.
 Force measurement is done using cradle mechanism.
 Eddy current dynamometer :Principle
Eddy current dynamometers operate on the principle of slip losses that
occur when an electrically conductive drum is made to rotate against a
stationery and non-uniform flux distribution, formed around its
periphery.

The relative speed between the stationery flux and the rotating drum,
causes flow of eddy currents, in the drum material, governed by the
laws of electromagnetic induction. The reactive magnetic field, resulting
from induced currents, is responsible for the braking torque developed
by the unit.
Eddy current dynamometer in IC engine lab IITG
Power Measurement ( absorbed )
EI
P
Efficiency
P = Power, wattmeter output
E = output voltage, volts
I = output current, amps
Efficiency = generator efficiency
 Cradle Shaft
Cradle: Is a support in bearing and has a moment arm connected to a force
measuring device.
Moment and speed give the shaft power

Trunnion Bearing