CHAPTER 3

STRAIN GAUGES

Certain materials, elements, objects, machines, or structural members will get stressed
when they are subjected to force or external load, as a result a deformation is caused to
some extent in them. Strain gauges are used to measure such type of deformation or the
extent of stress developed in these materials because of force or load.

Strain gauge is a passive resistance transducer which transforms mechanical elongation

or compression in to a resistance change. The change in resistance is due to variation in
the length and cross sectional area of the gauge wire.

Earlier (till1930), the common experimental procedure consists of, measuring the
displacement ΔL over some initial gauge length L and then calculating the resulting
average strain using the equation 3.1

dL L2  L1
Ea   - - - - - - - - - - - -(3.1 )
L L1
or
L
Ea 
L1
Where E a  Axial strain
L1  Linear dimension or gauge length (initial)
L2  Final strained linear dimension

In most of the engineering applications the quantity of strain resulted will be very small
in number and hence it is commonly multiplied by one million. The resulting number is
called as ‘micro strain’ (or parts per million).

The characteristic of the strain gauge is described in terms of its sensitivity, and is called
as ‘gauge factor’. The gauge factor is defined as the unit change in resistance for per unit
change in length of the strain gauge.

dR / R
Gauge Factor = G.F. =            (3.2)
dL / L

1
Where, R = Resistance of gauge wire
dR = Change in resistance of wire (Ω)
L = Length of gauge wire in unstressed condition (m)
dL = Change in length of wire when stressed (m)

Operation of resistive strain gauge

Consider a conductor of uniform cross sectional area ‘A’ and length ‘l’ and has a specific
resistivity ‘ρ’. At a constant temperature the resistance ‘R’ is given by

l
R      (3.3)
A

If this conductor is stretched or compressed, then its resistance will change, because of its
change in dimension. The change in resistance dR in R can be given by differentiating
equation 3.3. At the same time there will be change in specific resistivity (ρ) due to
variation of piezo resistance of the wire.

Differentiating equation 3.3

A. d (  l )   l. dA
dR 
A2

A(l. d   .d l )   l.dA
dR               (3.4)
A2

Dividing equation 3.4 by 3.3

dR d dl dA
              (3.5)
R  l A

2
Assuming cylindrical wire, hence the area of the wire is given by

D 2
A          (3.6)
4

Differentiating equation 3.6


dA  2. D. dD
4
D. dD
dA 
2
dA 2 dD

A D

Substituting dA /D in equation 3.5

dR d dl 2.dD
              (3.7)
R  l D

But we know that, by definition

dl
Axial strain  E a 
l

dD
And lateral strain = E L  
D

The negative sign indicates that, when the wire is axially stretched its cross sectional
diameter decreases and conversely positive sign for compression, hence equation 3.7
becomes

dR dρ
  E a  2 E L        (3.8)
R ρ

3
By the definition of Poisson’s ratio (μ)

EL
Poisson’s ratio = ratio of lateral to axial strain =
Ea

Hence equation 3.8 reduces to

dR dρ
  E a (1  2  )        (3.9)
R ρ

By the definition of gage factor,

dR dR
R R          (3.10)
G.F. = dl 
Ea
l

1 dR
Gauge factor = .            (3.11)
Ea R

From equation 3.9

1 d
G.F  ( )  (1  2  )        (3.12)
Ea 

Thus the gage factor or the sensitivity of a strain gage depends on two terms, such as, the
1 d
dimensional effect i.e. (1+2μ) and piezo resistive effect ( . )
Ea 
For a particular material ‘ρ’ is constant, hence dρ=0, then equation 3.12 becomes

G.F = 1+2μ ------------------- (3.13)

Gage factor is a dimension less quantity and the value of the gage factor ranges from 1.5
to 4, for metal strain gauges normally it is 2. For semiconductor strain gauges it will be
ranging between -100 to 150. Higher the gauge factor, higher is the sensitivity.

4
Also from equation 3.11

dR
 E a .G.F        3.14
R

That is fractional change in resistance of gage is equal to the applied axial strain along
active axis multiplied by the gauge factor.

Example 3.1
If a strain gauge is having a resistance of 200Ω and gauge factor of 2.1 experiences a
tensile strain of 400 micro strains. What is the change in resistance?

Solution

Given Data; R =200Ω, G.F. = 2.1, Ea= 400 micro strains

dR
We know that ,  E a .(G.F )
R
 dR  R.E a .(G.F )
dR  (200)  (400  10 6 )  2.1
dR  0.168

Example 3.2
A strain gauge having a resistance of 125Ω and gage factor 3.0 is rigidly attached to a
beam, which is then subjected to a compressive stress of 20 Mpa. (assume young’s
modulus = 100 x 10-9 ) Calculate change in resistance.

Solution

stress
We know that young’s modulus =
strain

stress
Or strain= Ea= Young ' s mod ulus

20  10 6
 Ea 
100  10 9

 -200 micro strain

5
 The negative sign indicates the compressive stress

Also, we know that

dR
 E a  G.F
R

dR
 ( 200  10 6 )  ( 2.0)
125

 dR  0.05
Types of Strain Gauges

Strain gauges can be classified as follows

Strain gauges

Metal wire gauges

(Wire wound) Semiconductor gauges

Unbonded gauges Bonded gauges Foil gauges

Flat grid type gauges Wrap wound type gauges

Unbonded Metal Wire Strain Gauge:

The unbonded metal wire gauges are used exclusively for transducer applications. These
employ a set of pre loaded resistance wires connected in a Wheatstone bridge. The strain
and resistance of the wire normally equal during balanced condition ( output of bridge =
0). Application of small input motion increases tension in two wires and compression in
other two wires and there by causing a un balance in the bridge and the output voltage is
proportional to the input motion.

6
Normal metal wires are made of chromo nickel or nickel alloy. These strain gauges will
be mounted directly on the specimen or structure whose stress has to be measured. Due
to the problem of fixing the unbonded gauge at the place of measurement, these strain
gauges are not very commonly used.
Fixed base

Force
1

3
Main platform
4

Stretched unbonded
gauge wre
Bonded Strain Gauges:

These gauges are bonded with a bonding material such as cement, paper, special wool
etc. to the measured surface. The bonded strain gauge consists of a wire grid which is
fixed on a base.

There are two types of bonded strain gauges

a. Flat grid type
b. Wrap wound type.

a. Flat Grid Type:

In these types wire is wound back and forth as shown in figure. This grid
structure is bonded to a baking material such as paper, cement, epoxy tec with a
adhesive so as to hold wire to the base firmly. The gridGrid
has material
two leads for external
connections. The leads are insulated from each other using sleeves.

Flat grid wire

Gauge length

Baking

Bonding
7

Leads
Rosettes:
In real time implementation of strain gauges an element may be subjected to stresses in
any direction and it will not be possible to locate the direction of principle stress. Hence
it may not be practically possible to orient the strain gauge along the direction of
principle stresses. There fore, there is a necessity to evolve a strain gauge measuring
system which measures the value of principle stresses without actually knowing their
directions. A special gauge arrangement incorporating two or more gauges called as the
strain gauge rosette is use full for such measurement. Rosette type incorporates three
grid gauges which will be 1200 apart as shown in figure.

1200 apart

1200 Rosette type

Conical type

b. Wrap Wound Type

This type of gauge is wound on a flattened tube of paper or on a thin strip or card as
shown in figure. Gauge length is smaller than that of flat grid but here gauge exhibits
greater surface thickness since grid wire is in two plane introducing different transfer
characteristics. For good sensitivity the gauge should have high resistivity and large
surface area and this can be achieved only with a thin wire of length length.
Paper tube

Baking Wire grid

8
Leads
Essential properties of grid material needed for bonded strain gauges are:

1. High gauge factor

2. Low temperature sensitivity
3. High electrical stability
4. High yield point-This increases the range of strain that can be measured.
5. High endurance limit- this helps in using the gauge in several thousand times
without any change in mechanical properties
6. Good solder- ability and weld- ability
7. Low Hysteresis
8. Good resistance to corrosion

Properties of bonding material:

Material used for bonding strain gauge- should have-
1. high mechanical strength
2. high dielectric strength
3. minimum moisture absorption capacity
4. good adhesiveness
5. minimum thickness
6. capacity to dry fast

The commonly used materials used for bonding the strain gauges are, Epoxy, cloth,
rubber, Araldite, cement etc.

Properties of baking material:

Material used for baking material in bonding strain gauge- should have
1. high mechanical strength
2. high degree of electric insulation properties
3. minimum moisture absorption capacity
4. good adhesiveness

9
 5. capacity to dry fast

The commonly used baking materials used in the strain gauges are, Bakelite, special
rubber, plastic, cement etc.

Foil Gauges:
Normally the grid type strain gauges are manufactured by drawing a wire and then laying
down the wire in to the required pattern.
Foil gauges are formed by rolling out a thin foil of the resistive material and then cutting-
away the parts of the foil by a photo etching process to create the required grid pattern.
This method of construction has many advantages over the conventional bonded drawn
wire method. They are;

1. The foil can be made much thinner than a wire and therefore more flexible.
2. For a given cross sectional area (and hence gauge resistance) the surface of the area is
much greater for a narrow rectangular cross section than for a circular one. This
gives much larger area for dissipation of heat generated by any current flowing in the
gauge.
3. The area of adhesion of the conduction to its baking material is much greater.
4. End connections of large area for attachment of lead can be provided.
5. Photo etching techniques have very accurate reproducibility; this simplifies the
fabrication of matched sets of gauges having same characteristics.
6. The overall dimensions of the foil gauge can be made very small for accurate
measurement of highly localized strains or for attachment to surface having a small
radius of curvature.
The above advantages have made the foil gauges to be widely used one.

Foil
Gauge length

Base
Semiconductor Strain Gauges:
Semiconductor strain gauges are characterized by high value of gauge factor. This makes
them more sensitive than wire and foil gauges. They are obtained from thin strips cut
from single crystal silicon and germanium. The major disadvantage is their temperature
instability and non linearity.
Soldering
connection
We know that the gauge factor is given by equation 3. 12

1 d
G.F  ( )  (1  2 ) Figure: Foil gauge
Ea 

10
 1 d d
Here the factor E (  ) is the predominant term; the term (  ) is the piezoelectric
a

coefficient of semiconductor material, while axial strain Ea depends on Young’s modulus.

Due to this factor the sensitivity of the semiconductor strain gauge becomes at least 50
times higher than of wire and foil gauges.

Signal conditioning of strain Gauge (Strain gauge circuit)

Stretched gauge

Force
(x)

Compressed gauge

A
R4
R1
R-ΔR
R+ΔR

Ei
R2
B
R-ΔR

R3 E0
R+ΔR
C

The whetstone’s four arm bridge is commonly employed for strain measurement. All the
arms of bridge consists strain gauges and this arrangement is called full bridge form.

The potential difference between points B and D is given by

 R1 R4 
E o  Ei   
 R1  R4 R3  R4 

11
  R1 R3  R2 R4 
i.e. E o  Ei          (3.15)
 ( R1  R2 )( R3  R4 ) 

The output voltage Eo is zero when R1 R3  R2 R4

Under the balanced condition if the resistance changes, then the value is given by

 ( R  R1 )( R3  R3 )  ( R2  R2 )( R4  R4 ) 

i.e. E o  Ei  1         (3.16)
 ( R1  R1  R2  R2 )( R3  R3  R4  R4 ) 

Neglecting second order terms, nonlinearity terms and rearranging

 R R2 R3 R4  R1 R2

E o  Ei  1                3.17
 R1 R2 R3 R4  ( R1  R2 ) 3

R1 R4
If a   Then,
R2 R3

a  R1 R2 R3 R4 

Eo  2 
    Ei            3.18
(1  a)  R1 R2 R3 R4 

R R
But we know that G.F .  R , also R  G.F . where E  axial strain
L Ea
a

L
R
  G .F .  E a
R

Hence equation 3.18 becomes

a
Eo   G.F  Ea1  G.F  Ea 2  G.F  Ea3  G.F  Ea 41  Ei        3.19
(1  a) 2

12
Where, Ea1 , Ea 2 , Ea3 and Ea 4 are the strains at corresponding gauges,
R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 ,
respectively.

If R1  R2  R3  R4 , then equation 3.19 can be reduced to

E 0  G.F .  E a  Ei          3.20

And sensitivity can be given by S  G.F  Ei

Half Bridge arrangement

A

Stretched gauge R-ΔR

R+ΔR

Force
(x) D

Ei
R B

R E0

Compressed
gauge

Here two strain gauges are used in two arms of the bridge and they will be bonded
on top and bottom of the standard member (here shown in cantilever). After applying the
stress, one gauge undergoes stretching and the other experience compression, i.e. in one
gauge changes R+ΔR and in the other changes to R-ΔR.

The change in out put voltage Eo is given by

 R  R 1
E o     E i        3.21
 ( R  R)  ( R  R ) 2 

13
 R
E o  Ei
2R

G.F .  E a
E o  Ei          3.22
2
G.F  E i
And sensitivity is given by; S 
2
This bridge will be having less sensitivity compared to full bridge.

Example 3.3
A compression force is applied to a column type load cell. The strain is 5 micro strains.
Two strain gauges are attached to the load cell, one is nickel wire strain gauge having a
gauge factor of -12.1 and the other is nichrome wire strain gauge having gauge factor of
2. Calculate the value of the resistance of the gages after they are strained. The
resistance of strain gauge before being strained is 120 ohms.

Solution:

Strain =   5  10 6
Gauge Factor = G.F. = -12.1 for Nickel and 2 for Nichrome
R= 120Ω

R
G.F .  R

We know that, or , R    G.F.  R
 5  10 -6  (12.1)  120
 - 7.26  10 -3

Change in resistance for Nickel

R  R  120  ( 7.26  10 -3 )
 120  7.26  10 -3
 120.007
This means resistance after they strained is 120.007Ω

Change in resistance for Nichrome

R    G.F.  R
 5  10 -6  2  120
 0.0012

14
Hence, R  R  120  0.0012
= 120.12Ω

This means resistance after they strained is 120.12Ω

MEASUREMENT OF FORCE

Force is defined as the product of mass and acceleration,

i.e. F = Mass (m) x Acceleration (a)
Mass is considered as the fundamental quantity and it can be expressed in kilogram.
Acceleration is not a fundamental quality but can be derived from length and time.

Different principles (methods) can be used to measure the force, they are;
1. Balancing unknown force against known gravitational force on a standard mass,
either directly or through system of levers.
2. Measuring the acceleration of a body of known mass to which the unknown force
is applied.
3. Balancing it against a magnetic force developed by interaction of a current
carrying coil and a magnet.
4. Transducing the force to a fluid pressure and measuring the same.
5. Applying the force to some elastic component and measuring the resulting
deflection
6. Measuring the change in natural frequency of a wire tensioned by force.

1. Balancing unknown force against known gravitational force on a standard mass,

either directly or through system of levers.

This is a commonly used principle, the below mentioned are the common examples used

a. Analytical balance
b. Pendulum scale
c. Platform scale
a. Analytical balance:
The analytical balance is very simple in construction, requires careful design and
operation to realize its maximum performance. The beam is designed in such a way that
the center of mass is only slightly below the knife edge. Pivot so as to position
equilibrium. This makes the beam deflection very sensitive indicator of balance. For
highly accurate measurements the buoyant force due to immersion of standard mass in air
must be considered. Accuracy of these instruments also varies with respect to
temperature, hence these instruments needs to be installed in controlled chambers.

Fi 15
Standard
mass Scale
 4. Transducing the force to a fluid pressure and then measuring the pressure

F Pressure
Indicator

Air supply or
Fluid supply

Strain Gauge based Load Cell:

This is one of the widely used devices. This can be used to measure force, pressure or
Force
load etc. Here we have discussed the force measuring system. The arrangement is shown
in the (or load)Bonded type strain gauges are used to pickup the strain produced under the
figure.
influence of force or load. When the force is applied to the support column there will be
deformation in the strain gauge and there by resulting the change in the resistance of the
strain gauges which is a measure of strain
Rss and hence
Rmcthe applied force, High accuracy
can be attained by implementing temperature compensation in the strain gauge bridge
circuit. This is accomplished by using temperature sensitive resistors2 R gc and Rmc in the
circuit.
1 2 1
gc
R
Ri
rs

E0
3
Support Bonded 16
column strain Rmc
gauges
 These compensating resistors are permanently fixed to the load cell so as to assume the
same temperature as the gauges. The resistor R gc can be used to compensate for slightly
different temperature coefficient of resistance of the four gauges. The resistance Rmc is
used to compensate for the temperature dependence of the modulus of elasticity of the
load sensing membrane. This is necessary because, when the unknown force is applied
for measurement, the strain gauge senses strain, and if there is any change in the modulus
of elasticity then this will also result in the change of strain even though the force is the
same. Normally most of the metals change modulus with respect to temperature and this
may cause drift in sensitivity. The resistance R mc compensates for this by changing the
excitation voltage actually applied to the bridge and counteracts the modular effect.

The resistance Rss can be used to standardize sensitivity for a nominal excitation to a
desired value, and Rirs is used to adjust the input resistance to the desired value. Both the
resistors are non temperature sensitive.

Advantages of load cell:

1. Small and compact
2. Good accuracy
3. Wide range
4. Low cost
5. can be used for automation Digital
Display
Electronic Weighing System:

Load Cell Signal conditioning Filter ADC Printer

Excitation Computer
Zero set interface
17
For further
processing
18