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Measurement Systems
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 1
Lesson
5
Pressure and Force
Measurement
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 2
Instructional Objectives
The reader, after going through the lesson would be able to
1. Name different methods for pressure measurement using elastic transducers.
2. Explain the construction and principle of operation of a Bourdon tube pressure gage.
3. Define gage factor of a strain gage
4. Name different strain gage materials and state their gage factors.
5. Will be able to draw the connection diagram of an unbalanced bridge with four strain
gages so as to obtain maximum sensitivity and perfect temperature compensation.
6. Name different methods for force measurement with strain gages.
1. Introduction
In this lesson, we will discuss different methods for measurement of pressure and force. Elastic
elements, namely diaphragms and Bourdon tubes are mainly used for pressure measurement. On
the other hand, strain gages are commonly used for measurement of force. The constructions and
principles of operation of different elastic elements for pressure measurement have been
discussed in the next section. This is followed by principle of strain gage and measurement of
force using strain gages.
2. Pressure Measurement
Measurement of pressure inside a pipeline or a container in an industrial environment is a
challenging task, keeping in mind that pressure may be very high, or very low (vacuum); the
medium may be liquid, or gaseous. We will not discuss the vacuum pressure measuring
techniques; rather try to concentrate on measurement techniques of pressure higher than the
atmospheric. They are mainly carried out by using elastic elements: diaphragms, bellows and
Bourdon tubes. These elastic elements change their shape with applied pressure and the change
of shape can be measured using suitable deflection transducers. Their basic constructions and
principle of operation are explained below.
2.1 Diaphragms
Diaphragms may be of three types: Thin plate, Membrane and Corrugated diaphragm. This
classification is based on the applied pressure and the corresponding displacements. Thin plate
(fig. 1(a)) is made by machining a solid block and making a circular cross sectional area with
smaller thickness in the middle. It is used for measurement of relatively higher pressure. In a
membrane the sensing section is glued in between two solid blocks as shown in fig. 1(b). The
thickness is smaller; as a result, when pressure is applied on one side, the displacement is larger.
The sensitivity can be further enhanced in a corrugated diaphragm (fig. 1(c)), and a large
deflection can be obtained for a small change in pressure; however at the cost of linearity. The
materials used are Bronze, Brass, and Stainless steel. In recent times, Silicon has been
extensively used the diaphragm material in MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) pressure
sensor. Further, the natural frequency of a diaphragm can be expressed as:
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 3
1 k
fn = (1)
2π meq
where meq = equivalent mass, and
k= elastic constant of the diaphragm.
The operating frequency of the pressure to be measured must be less than the natural frequency
of the diaphragm.
When pressure is applied to a diaphragm, it deflates and the maximum deflection at the centre
( y0 ) can measured using a displacement transducer. For a Thin plate, the maximum deflection
y0 is small ( y0 < 0.3 t ) and referring fig. 2, a linear relationship between p and y0 exists as:
3 (1 − ν 2 ) 4
y0 = p R (2)
16 Et 3
where, E= Modulus of elasticity of the diaphragm material, and
ν = Poisson’s ratio.
However, the allowable pressure should be less than:
2
⎛t ⎞
pmax = 1.5 ⎜ ⎟ σ max (3)
⎝R⎠
where, σ max is the safe allowable stress of the material.
For a membrane, the deflection is larger, and the relationship between p and y0 is nonlinear and
can be expressed as (for ν = 0.3):
E t3 3
p = 3.58 4 y0 (4)
R
2.2 Bellows
Bellows (fig. 3) are made with a number of convolutions from a soft material and one end of it is
fixed, wherein air can go through a port. The other end of the bellows is free to move. The
displacement of the free end increases with the number of convolutions used. Number of
convolutions varies between 5 to 20. Often an external spring is used opposing the movement of
the bellows; as a result a linear relationship can be obtained from the equation:
pA=kx (5)
where, A is the area of the bellows,
k is the spring constant and
x is the displacement of the bellows.
Phosphor Bronze, Brass, Beryllium Copper, Stainless Steel are normally used as the materials for
bellows. Bellows are manufactured either by (i) turning from a solid block of metal, or (ii)
soldering or welding stamped annular rings, or (iii) rolling (pressing) a tube.
3. Measurement of Force
The most popular method for measuring force is using strain gage. We measure the strain
developed due to force using strain gages; and by multiplying the strain with the effective cross
sectional area and Young’s modulus of the material, we can obtain force. Load cells and Proving
rings are two common methods for force measurement using strain gages. We will first discuss
the principle of strain gage and then go for the force measuring techniques.
πd 2 πd
Now, for a circular cross section, A = ; from which, ΔA = Δd . Alternatively,
4 2
ΔA Δd
=2
A d
Hence,
ΔR Δl Δd Δ ρ
= −2 + (7)
R l d ρ
Now, the Poisson’s Ratio is defined as:
Δd
lateral strain d
υ =− =−
longitudinal strain Δl
l
The Poisson’s Ratio is the property of the material, and does not depend on the dimension. So,
(6) can be rewritten as:
ΔR Δl Δρ
= (1 + 2υ ) +
R l ρ
Hence,
Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 7
ΔR Δρ
R = 1 + 2υ + ρ
Δl Δl
l l
The last term in the right hand side of the above expression, represents the change in resistivity
of the material due to applied strain that occurs due to the piezo-resistance property of the
material. In fact, all the elements in the right hand side of the above equation are independent of
the geometry of the wire, subjected to strain, but rather depend on the material property of the
wire. Due to this reason, a term Gage Factor is used to characterize the performance of a strain
gage. The Gage Factor is defined as:
ΔR Δρ
R ρ
G := = 1 + 2υ + (8)
Δl Δl
l l
For normal metals the Poisson’s ratio υ varies in the range:
0.3 ≤ υ ≤ 0.6 ,
while the piezo-resistance coefficient varies in the range:
Δρ
ρ
0.2 ≤ ≤ 0.6 .
Δl
l
Thus, the Gage Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However, the
semiconductor type strain gages have a very large Gage Factor, in the range of 100-150. This is
attained due to dominant piezo-resistance property of semiconductors. The commercially
available strain gages have certain fixed resistance values, such as, 120Ω, 350 Ω, 1000 Ω, etc.
The manufacturer also specifies the Gage Factor and the maximum gage current to avoid self-
heating (normally in the range 15 mA to 100 mA).
The choice of material for a metallic strain gage should depend on several factors. The material
should have low temperature coefficient of resistance. It should also have low coefficient for
thermal expansion. Judging from all these factors, only few alloys qualify for a commercial
metallic strain gage. They are:
Advance (55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gage Factor between 2.0 to 2.2
Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Co): Gage Factor between 2.2 to 2.5
Apart from these two, Isoelastic -another trademarked alloy with Gage Factor around 3.5 is also
in use. Semiconductor type strain gages, though having large Gage Factor, find limited use,
because of their high sensitivity and nonlinear characteristics.
MEMS pressure sensors is now a days becoming increasingly popular for measurement of
pressure. It is made of a small silicon diagram with four piezo-resistive strain gages mounted on
it. It has an in-built signal conditioning circuits and delivers measurable output voltage
corresponding to the pressure applied. Low weight and small size of the sensor make it suitable
for measurement of pressure in specific applications.
On the other hand, load cells, Proving Rings and Cantilever Beams are used for force
measurement. Here strain gages mounted on the sensing elements measure strains, and the
unbalanced voltage of a strain gage bridge can be effectively calibrated in terms of force.
Another method of force measurement is using magnetostrictive transducers; but its principle of
operation is beyond the scope of this lesson.
Review Exercise
1. Which one of the elastic transducers: Bellows, Thin Plate and Corrugated Diaphragm,
can be used for measurement of high pressure?
2. Bellows are commonly used in conjunction with a spring. Why?
3. Explain the construction and principle of operation of a Bourdon tube pressure gage.
4. Define gage factor of strain gage. What are the strain gage materials normally used?
Which one of them is having maximum gage factor?
5. What is a strain gage rosette?
6. A 120 Ω strain gage of Gage Factor 2.0 is subjected to a positive strain of 1× 10−6 . Find
the change in resistance.
7. How the effect of temperature variation can be compensated in a strain gage bridge?
Answer
Q6. 0.24 mΩ (increase).
Strain Sensing
Axis
Solder Gage
Tabs Grid
FIGURE 1 - Illustration of a typical, uniaxial resistance foil strain gage
STRAIN GAGE RESISTANCE
Strain gage manufacturers produce strain gages with three standard resistances: 120 Ω,
350 Ω, and 1000 Ω. The user specifies the desired resistance when ordering the strain
gage. The 120 Ω resistance is the most commonly used, although 350 Ω and 1000 Ω
strain gages are widely available.
where ∆R g is the change in resistance, F g is the gage factor, R g is the initial gage
resistance, and ε m is the strain in the strain gage. Thus, a resistance change from 120 Ω
to 120.0024 Ω must measured...a very small change indeed!!! In fact, it is very difficult to
measure such small changes in resistance using "normal" ohmmeters. Instead, special
"strain gage circuits" are used to measure these small resistance changes accurately and
precisely. The most widely used strain gage circuit is the "Wheatstone bridge" and is
described in the following section.
As show in Fig. 2, the Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four "arms." Each arm
contains a resistance (i.e. resistances, R1, R2, R3, and R4). An excitation voltage Vex
(typically 2 to 10 volts) is applied across junction A-C and a voltmeter is used to measure
the resulting potential across junctions B-D (voltage ∆E). If all the resistances are equal
(i.e. R1= R2=R3=R4) then ∆E =0 and the bridge is said to be balanced.
A
R4 R1
∆E
Vex D B
R3 R2
C
FIGURE 2 - Schematic Diagram of a Wheatstone Bridge
Typically, a 1/4 (quarter) arm Wheatstone bridge circuit is used for individual strain gages
where resistance R1 is the strain gage (i.e., R1 = Rg) and the other three resistances are
precision resistors equal to the nominal resistance of Rg (e.g. R2 =R3 = R4=120 Ω)1 . If the
strain gage experiences a strain, the strain gage resistance changes, causing the bridge
to become unbalanced. The resulting voltage, ∆E is given by:
V ex ∆R g
∆E = (2).
4 R g
Combining Eqs. 1 and 2 yields:
4 ∆E
εm = (3)
F g V ex
Equation 3 is an important result. It shows that the strain in the strain gage, ε m , is related
to the quantities, Fg, ∆E, and Vex. Generally though, Eq. 3 is not applied directly, Instead,
strain gage amplifiers which have been calibrated according to Eq. 3 are used to provide
a direct readout of strain.
Strain gage manufacturers perform standard calibration measurements for each lot of
strain gages they produce. When a user purchases a strain gage, the manufacturer
provides the results of these measurements in the form of several calibration constants.
One of these constants is the "gage factor." The gage factor allows the user the convert
the change in gage resistance to the corresponding strain level. Specifically, the strain
measured in an individual strain gage is related to the change in the strain gage
resistance such that:
1 ∆R g
εm = (4)
Fg R g
The value of the gage factor depends on the metallic alloy used and varies slightly from
lot to lot, typically being in the range of 2.0 to 2.1.
Three-element strain gage rosettes are used when it is desired to measure εx, εy, and γxy,
induced at a point (or equivalently, when the principal strains and principal directions are
unknown). Referring to the x-y coordinate system in Fig. 3, recall that the normal strain
induced in an arbitrary direction from the x-axis defined by angle θ (strain εθ) is related to
the strains in the x-y coordinate system according to:
1 Actually, the resistances need not be identical. Instead, all that is required is that (R /R ) = (R /R ).
1 2 3 4
However, for the present purposes, it is sufficient to assume (R1=R2= R3=R4)
Y
X
FIGURE 3 - Single Strain Arbitrarily Oriented to the X-Y Coordinate System.
The strain, εθ, can be measured by simply mounting a strain gage in the direction defined
by angle θ. In solving Eq. 5, εθ and θ are known but there are still three unknowns, εx, εy,
and γxy. Thus, to solve for the unknowns, two more equations are required for a total of
three equations (i.e. three equations, three unknowns). If a total of three strain gages are
mounted in three distinct but arbitrary directions (θ1, θ2, and θ3) as shown in Fig. 4, then
Eq. 5 can be applied three times such that:
θ2
θ3
θ1
X
FIGURE 4 - Three Strains Arbitrarily Oriented to the X-Y Coordinate System.
Equations 6a-6c are called the general rosette equations. If θ1 is set equal to 0°, θ2 to
45° and θ3 to 90° the resulting strain gage configuration is called a rectangular rosette as
shown in Fig. 5a. The resulting equations for a rectangular rosette are:
ε 0° = ε x cos2 (0° ) + ε y sin2 (0° ) + γ xy cos(0° )sin(0° ) (7a)
ε y = ε 90° (8b)
Similarly, if θ1 is set equal to 0°, θ2 to 60° and θ3 to 120°, the resulting strain gage
configuration is called a delta rosette as shown in Fig. 5b. The resulting equations for a
delta rosette are:
ε 0° = ε x cos2 (0° ) + ε y sin2 (0° ) + γ xy cos(0° )sin(0° ) (9a)
1
εy =
3
[ 2( ε 60° + ε120° ) − ε 0° ] (10b)
2 3
γ xy =
3
[ ε 60° − ε120° ] (10c)
45° 60°
60°
45°
Assignment # 6
Strain Gauges
3. Define gauge factor and transverse sensitivity of a strain gauge. How is the gauge factor
obtained by the manufacturer?
4. Why a strain gauge needs to be supported by a carrier? What are the different carrier
materials available? Do these carrier materials play a role in strain gauge
instrumentation? Substantiate your answer with a case study.
5. What are the different glues available for pasting a strain gauge? What aspects decide
their selection?
8. Estimate the error involved if a strain gauge is pasted on a 0.5 mm thick cantilever beam
whose grid plane is at a height of 0.05 mm above the surface of the beam. How does the
error changes if the cantilever beam is of 50 mm thickness?
10. A structural member is loaded as shown in Fig. 1. It is required to measure the strain
introduced at point C, which is 1.25 m from the free end. At your disposal you have
access to only rectangular rosettes. Show by neat sketches, how will you paste and
connect the elements of the gauges in a Wheatstone bridge to measure the following.
i. State of strain at point C.
ii. Strain introduced by bending and torsion separately.
2
iii. What is the maximum amplification of the signal you can get for measuring the
bending and torsional strain? How will you achieve the same?
Fig. 1
Find the magnitude of the principal strains in the plane of the rosette.