MET 301

EXPERIMENT # 2
APPLICATION OF BONDED STRAIN GAGES

1. Objective
To understand the working principle of bonded strain gauge and to study the stress and strain in a
hollow cylindrical shaft under bending, torsion and combined bending and torsion.

2. Resistance Strain Gage

The underlying concept of the strain gage is very simple. In essence, an electrically-conductive
wire or foil (i.e. the strain gage) is bonded to the structure of interest and the resistance of the
wire or foil is measured before and after the structure is loaded. Since the strain gage is firmly
bonded to the structure, any strain induced in the structure by the loading is also induced in the
strain gage. This causes a change in the strain gage resistance thus serving as an indirect measure
of the strain induced in the structure.
A typical strain gage is shown in Figure 1. The orientation of the grid defines the strain sensing
axis of the strain gage. Electrical connections are made by soldering lead wires to the strain gage
"solder tabs." The entire strain gage is bonded to a thin polymeric backing which helps protect
and support the delicate metal foil.

Compression causes
resistance to decrease

Figure 1. A typical bonded strain gage

dl
The normal strain,   , where dl = change in length and l = original length. Since the
l
electrical resistance (R) is proportional to the length (l) of the conductor R  l  , then
dl dR
  , where dR is the change in resistance and R is the original resistance of the gage.
l R
The proportionality constant of the strain gage is called the gage factor (GF): Thus,
dR dR
 GF   , or ,   …….(1)
R R  GF

The strain gages used in this experiment is MM Type WA-06-250WT-120 with GF = 2.05 and
resistance R = 120 ohms  0.4%. These measurements are supplied by the manufacturer.

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Consider the magnitude of the resistance change which must typically be measured. Assume a
measurement resolution of 10 x 10-6 m/m = 10 µm/m is required (a typical measurement). The
change in resistance which corresponds to a strain of 10 µm/m can be calculated using:

Eq. 1: dR = (GF )(R )(ε) = (2.05)(120Ω)(10x10−6 m / m) = 0.00246Ω

Thus, a resistance change from 120 Ω to 120.00246 Ω must be measured...a very small change
indeed!!! In fact, it is very difficult to measure such small changes in resistance using "normal"
ohmmeters. Instead, special "strain gage circuits" are used to measure these small resistance
changes accurately and precisely. The most widely used strain gage circuit is the "Wheatstone
bridge" which we have studied previously. The digital strain indicator instrument (explained
later) will implement the Wheatstone bridge circuitry and provide the necessary controls to
determine the change in resistance, and when it is calibrated properly, it will the show the strain
digitally.

3. The experimental setup

Figure 2. The experimental setup for the measurement

The experimental setup consists of a hollow cylindrical shaft ABC (Figure 2) supported by two
bearings at A and B, and keyed at B to prevent rotation of the shaft. The BC end of the shaft is a
cantilever (no support in the C side), and thus when a weight hung from C, it will cause the shaft
to be loaded in pure bending. A torque arm CD is attached to the shaft at C. When a weight is
hung from D (at the end of the torque arm) the shaft will be loaded in combined bending and

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torsion. The other half of the shaft, the AB section of the shaft is supported at both A and B ends,
and it is fixed from rotation at B end, thus a weight hung from E (at the end of the torque arm in
AB section) will load the shaft in pure torsion.
Twelve strain gages (#1 to #12) are bonded at various locations on the shaft surface to
register strain. These strain gages are electrically connected to the four rotary switches (RI, RII,
RIII & RIV) (Figure 2) on the connector box. Three additional non-load bearing strain gages
(#13, #14 & #15) are placed inside the connector box, and those are also connected to the rotary
switches. The non-load bearing strain gages serve to compensate any change in electrical
resistance from the change in room temperature. When this connector box is connected to the
digital strain indicator, by dialing appropriate numbers on the four rotary switches, any four
strain gages can be placed on a Wheatstone bridge circuit within the digital strain indicator. In
our experiment, we will dial the number of an active strain gage (any one of #1 to #12) on RI
switch on the left, and set #13, #14 & #15 in rest of the three rotary switches (RII, RIII & RIV).
Thus, the Wheatstone bridge will always have one active gage and three compensatory gages on
its four arms. This configuration of four gages on the four arms is known as full bridge
configuration.

The shaft is made from 6063-T6 aluminum tube, with the following dimensions:
Outside diameter do= 0.825 in
Inside diameter di = 0.635 in
Length of the cantilever from the centerline of the gages
1-6 to the centerline of the weight pan (see Figure 3):
Moment arm L = 9.875 in
Length of the torque arms LT = 12.764 in
Nominal load P = 3 lb (use the stamped load value for your calculations)
Modulus of Elasticity E = 10x106 psi
Poisson’s ratio  = 0.33

4. Strain on various points and direction

(i) Pure Bending: For pure bending, we will apply the load directly on the shaft at point C
(shown in Figure 2), and we will measure strains in gage #1, #2, #3, #4, #5 and #6 (see Figure
3). Strain gage #1, measures longitudinal stress at the top layer of the beam, #2 crosswise at the
top layer, #3 and #4 are similar positions but at the bottom layer of the shaft, #5 and #6 are at 45o
crosswise from the neutral axis. Remember that the strain gage can only measure the normal
stress in the direction it is attached.
From the applied load P, the normal bending stress (x)at the top (tensile) and the bottom
(compressive) layer of the shaft will be
32 P  L
x  3 ....................................................................... (2)
d o (1  4 )
where,
L = Moment arm, do= Outer diameter, di= Inner diameter &  di/ do

The strain gages #1 and #2 attached lengthwise (X) and crosswise(Y) directions (See Figure
x
3), respectively. The strains () registered by these two gages should be  1  , and
E

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 2    x (poison’s effect), respectively. [E = Modulus of elasticity, and  = Poisson’s ratio of
the shaft material]
Since the bending stress in the bottom layer of the shaft is equal in magnitude but opposite in
sign compared to the stress in top layer, the strain gages #3 and #4 should register strains,
 3   1 , and  4   2 .
At the neutral axis there will be only transverse shear stress (xy) in X & Y direction.
However, the transverse shear strain at the neutral axis will be very small (of the order of 3 to 4
in/in) and will be ignored, and we will expect close to zero strain in these two
gages ( 5   6  0) .

Figure 3. Bending stress and strain

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 (ii) Pure Torsion load: For pure torsion, we will apply the load on the left side torque arm at
point E (as shown in Figure 2) and we will measure strains in gage #7, #8, #11 & #12 (Figure 4).
When pure torque T is applied on the cylindrical beam, only shear stress xy will be developed on
the outer surface. This stress is constant along the length of the beam. The shear stress
16T
 xy  3 ....................................................................... (3)
do (1  4 )
Where, T = Torque= P*LT
and LT= length of the torque arm.

The strain gage #7 and #8 affixed along the X and Y axes, will not register any strain, since there
is no normal stress in X and Y directions. However, the gage #11 and #12, affixed at 45o to the
X axis, will register strain.
 xy  xy
 11  1    and  12  1   
E E

do

di

7 8

12
11

Y
O
45
T
xy  X

xy X
xy

xy xy 12 11

xy 

X X
O
45 45
O

xy
xy 12
Stress 11
Strain

Figure 4. Bar under pure torsion

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(iii) Combined bending and torsion load:
We will apply the load at torque arm on the right side (point D, as shown in Figure 2), and
measure strains registered in gage #1 and #5 (Figure 5). The bending load will produce normal
bending stress (x) and very small transverse shear stress, which will be neglected. However,
torque load will produce shear stress (xy). Strain gage #1 only will register the normal stress
(x), and as a result, strains should remain unchanged from the pure bending load condition.

Transverse shear and pure shear stress will be in the same direction, and the total shear stress
16T
 xy  3
d o (1  4 )
The strain registered by gage #5 will be
 xy
5  1   
E

2

1 1 X
A
Strain
2
x x
X

1 Stress do
L
di
5 2
6
O
45 Y

xy X
xy T
P
5 6

X X
O
45 45
O

xy
xy
5
Stress 6 Strain

Figure 5. Bar under combined bending and torsion

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5. Measurement of Strain by Digital Strain
Indicator Digital display
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is established by
connecting the binding posts (P+, P-, S+, S-)
on the connector box of the beam assembly to

Span coarse and

Balance coarse and

fine controls
the corresponding binding posts (P+, P-, S+, S-

fine controls
) on the digital strain indicator (Vishay Digital
Strain Indicator, model Vishay/Ellis-20A)
(Figure 6). Once the binding posts are
connected you can select any four strain gages
in the four sides of the Wheatstone bridge by
turning the 4 switches on the biding post. Instrument Function Range
The digital strain indicator is powered up by zero selector selector
moving the Function Selector switch from
‘off’ to ‘zero’ position. The digital display Vi
should read 000. If there is a drift from
instrument zero, then the Instrument Zero
switch is adjusted until the digital display reads Ra R15
000. This instrument zero drift should be
checked periodically during the experiment. Vo
This is not balancing the bridge.
The Range Selector switch on the digital R13 R14
strain indicator should be turned to ‘full bridge’
configuration (denoted by X1), since we are
using four strain gages (one active Ra, and three Figure 6. Digital strain indicator and the full
non-active R13, R14 & R15) in the four arms of bridge Wheatstone bridge configuration.
the bridge.
When the Function Selector switch is
turned to ‘read’ position and the strain indicator digitally displays the bridge unbalance voltage
(Vo in figure 6). Although the four strain gages have same resistance values in unloaded
condition, different lengths of lead wires and minute difference in resistances of the gages will
cause an initial imbalance in the bridge.
When the function selector in the read position, we will balance the bridge by using the
‘balance coarse’ and ‘balance fine’ switches until the display reads 000, or close. This should
be done in no load condition. Turning the balancing
switches adds or subtracts resistance in one of the
branches of the Wheatstone bridge circuit, and thereby
achieves a balanced bridge, that is Vo =0, and the digital Vi
output is 000, when the function switch is in ‘read’ more
From the balanced bridge (display reads 000) in Rs
unloaded condition, when a mechanical load is placed R15
Ra
on to the machine element, the strain in the machine
element causes a change in resistance (dRa) of the active Vo
strain gage (Ra). This change in resistance causes a
bridge unbalance voltage Vo, which is displayed via the R13 R14
digital display. You can lightly push the shaft and see
how the digital display is changing.
The next part is to calibrate the digital readout of Vo Figure 7. Internal calibration by a shunt
resistance
to display the strain in a given measurement unit. The
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gain of the digital display can be adjusted by turning the Span Coarse and Span Fine switches.
If we apply a known level of strain in the active strain gage and adjust gain of the bridge output
to display the strain, then the display will be calibrated to read any unknown strain, within the
vicinity of the calibrated strain.
However, instead of applying a known external strain, we will implement a predetermined
small change in the resistance in the active gage (Ra) by placing a comparatively large known
shunt resistance Rs in parallel (Figure 7). In our case, Rs= 200,000 and Ra=120 y turning
the Function selector switch to ‘internal calibration’ the shunt resistance Rs is connected parallel
to the active strain gage Ra. 
Change in resistance in the active leg (Ra) due to shunt

120  200,000
dRa  Ra  Req  120   0.071956826 
120  200,000

According to the equation (1) in section 2, this change in resistance in the active arm is
equivalent to a mechanical strain,
dRa 0.071956826  10 6
c    293   in / in
Ra  GF 120  2.05

Thus, after the bridge is balanced (Vo=0), we will apply the shunt resistance by turning the
Function selector switch to ‘internal calibration’ position. At this position the digital output of
the bridge is set to 293 by adjusting the span coarse and fine switches. Once this calibration is
achieved, we will turn back the Function Selector switch to ‘read’ mode again, which will
disconnect the shunt resistance from the active gage. Since the bridge was previously balanced,
the display should then again read 000. Now, any change in the resistance in the active gage
from an external mechanical loading will be read by the strain indicator in in/in.

In summary, to measure the strain from each strain gage, we need to connect one active gage and
three dummy gages to form the Wheatstone bridge. When the bridge is in reading mode, balance
the bridge using balance coarse and balance fine switches with no load applied on the shaft.
Once bridge is balanced, calibrate it output by selecting internal calibration, and bring the
number 293 using span coarse and span fine controls. The turn back the switch to read mode, it
should still be zero, if not adjust it back to zero using balance fine. Once it is both balanced and
calibrated, you are ready for strain measurement. Apply the load corresponding to the strain
gage you want to measure, and note the digital output which gives you strain in inch/inch.
Repeat this procedure for each strain measurement,

6. Analysis
(a) For a pure bending load of approximately 3 lb, calculate the theoretical strains on the
beam that should be recorded by strain gages #1, #2, #3, #4, #5 and #6. Compare these
values with those measured in the experiment.
(b) For a pure torsion load of approximately 3 lb, calculate the theoretical strains on the beam
that should be recorded by strain gages #7, #8, #11 and #12. Compare these values with
those measured in the experiment.
(c) For a combined bending and torsion load of approximately 3 lb, calculate the theoretical
strains on the beam that should be recorded by strain gages #1 and #5. Compare these
values with those measured in the experiment.

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DATA SHEET
Date_____________________

Names of the group members: ________________ , ________________ , ________________ ,

________________ , ________________

Weight
Weight No.
gram pound
1
2
3

Loading Strain Gage # Strain () in in/in

Test #
Type R(I) R(II) R(III) R(IV) Reading Calculated
1 Bending 1

2 Bending 2

3 Bending 3

4 Bending 4

5 Bending 5

6 Bending 6

7 Torsion 7

8 Torsion 8

9 Torsion 11

10 Torsion 12
Bending &
11 1
Torsion
Bending &
12 5
Torsion

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