UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

SCHULICH SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

ENCI 317: MECHANICS OF SOLIDS (Fall 2022)

Lab 2: Torsion and Bending

Lab Section #:

Name:

UCID:

Date

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 PART A – TORSION

Objective

To demonstrate the behaviour of brittle and ductile materials in torsion.

Introduction

In the design of machinery and structures, the problem of transmitting torque is

frequently encountered. The simplest device for accomplishing this is a circular shaft
such as that connecting a motor with a pump. In steel and reinforced concrete
structures torsion rarely occurs alone but torque can be observed in combination with
transverse shear and bending. Regardless of the application, knowledge of the
behaviour of the material under the influence of torsional forces is necessary for
designing structural units subjected to torsion. As in the last experiment on tension
testing, the performance of a relatively ductile material (mild steel) is compared with that
of a relatively brittle material (cast iron).

Theory

A torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal axis. By
applying torque to noncircular shapes, warping can be observed. In this situation, planar
cross sections before application of the loading become nonplanar or warped, after
applying torque.

Fig.1 shows a schematic view of applying torque to circular and non-circular

elements. Fig. 1 a and b show a circular shaft before and after applying torque and as can
be seen, the plane section before twisting remains plane after twisting. Otherwise, the
square cross-section becomes wrapped or nonplanar after applying torque.

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 Figure 1. Deformation of an element before and after applying torque. Circular (a-b)
Square (c-d) [1]

Now we want to calculate stress and strain due to a torque applied to a circular shaft.
By applying torque to a shaft, the shaft is twisted and the angle of twist or angle of rotation
(∅) is observable in Fig. 2b. Now we can relate the angle of twist to the shear strain (𝛾)
developed in the shaft. Eq. 1 relates the strain to the angle of twist in a circular shaft. Eq. 2
indicates the relation between the stress and torque applied to a shaft. Eq. 3 relates the
angle of twist to the torsion and shear modulus.

𝑑∅ (1)
𝛾=𝜌
𝑑𝑥
𝑇𝜌 (2)
𝜏=
𝐽

𝑇𝐿 (3)
∅=
𝐽𝐺

where T (N.m) is the torque, and J (m4) is the polar moment of inertia. For the circular
𝜋𝐷 4
geometry 𝐽 = 32 , and 𝜏 (N.m2) is the shear stress. The maximum stress and strain occur
on the outer surface of the shaft. Fig. 3 shows the stress distribution in a circular shaft. The
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minimum stress happens in the middle of the shaft as can be concluded from Eq. 2 and the
maximum stress happens at the outer surface of the shaft. Eq. 3 can be written in the other
way to calculate the shear modulus from other known parameters.

𝑇𝐿 (4)
𝐺=
𝐽∅

Where G (MPa) is the shear modulus, L (mm) is the gauge length, T (N.m) is the
torque, and ∅ (radians) is the angle of twist.

Figure 2. Circular shaft subjected to pure torsion [1]

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 Figure 3. Linear shear stress variation as a function of the radial coordinate [1]

Apparatus

Fig. 4 shows a schematic view of Torsion Testing Machine with Troptometer. We use
this device to apply torsion to the circular shaft.

Figure 4. Schematic view of the torsion test machine

Procedure

A circular bar is gripped in a torsion testing machine, and a twisting moment is

applied in increments. Two specimens will be analyzed. The first sample will be mild
steel and the second sample will be cast iron.
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 Please record at every increment the applied torque and the angular deformation
in the table below.

Cast Iron Diameter (mm)= Mild Steel Diameter (mm)=

Torque Dial   Torque Dial  

(Nm) Gauge (mm) (Radians) (Nm) Gauge (mm) (Radians)
(mm) (mm)

0 0

50 50

100 100

150 150

200 200

250 250

300 300

Failure Failure
Nm Nm
# of
Rotations

Where 𝛿(𝑚𝑚) is the deformation calculated by subtracting each dial gauge reading from the
initial dial gauge reading at torque equal to zero. ∅ (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) is the angle of twist which is
𝛿
calculated using, ∅ = 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.

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1) Plot TL/J versus angle of twist for each specimen. Discuss the difference between the
curves for mild steel and cast iron. L is the gauge length.

2) From the slope of the graph report the value for G, in GPa, for each specimen.

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3) Comment on the differences in the mode of failure between the two materials.

4) Which would you regard as most suitable for the shaft connecting the steering
wheel of an automobile to the steering box system and why?

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 PART B – BENDING

Objective

To determine the load-deflection relationship for a steel beam and compare the
results with stress and strain calculated using the elastic bending formula. To
demonstrate beam behaviour at strains above the elastic limit which produce yielding of
the steel.

Introduction

In the design of machinery and structures, the problem of bending and the stresses
and deflections produced by it must be addressed. Depending on the nature of the
application and the properties of the material, bending stress or deflection or both must
remain below a specified value. Consequently, the designer requires knowledge of
material bending behaviour to satisfactorily complete the required design.

Theory

Considering a short segment of a beam as depicted in Fig. 5, subject to pure bending,

we can investigate the strains corresponding to the moment. In this situation, the beam
deforms into the shape of a circular arc. O is the center of the curvature and the radial
distance from the center of curvature to the beam neutral surface is the radius of curvature
(𝜌).

Figure 5. Flexural deformation [1]

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 Eq. 5 indicates the relation between the strain and radius of curvature and Eq. 6
shows the relation between stress, Young modulus, and radius of curvature.
−𝑦 (5)
𝜀𝑥 =
𝜌

−𝐸𝑦 (6)
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 =
𝜌

Fig. 6 illustrates a beam under a bending moment. Part of the beam above the
neutral surface is under pressure and part of the beam below the neutral surface is
under tensile stress. We can relate the stress to the bending moment and the distance
from the neutral surface by using Eq. 7.

𝑀𝑦 (7)
𝜎𝑥 = −
𝐼𝑧

where 𝐼𝑧 is the moment of inertia.

Figure 6. Normal stress distribution in a beam under pure bending moment [1]

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Apparatus

1. A 25.4 x 6 mm mild steel beam is subjected to pure bending over the central
section in a beam testing frame.

2. A displacement transducer is placed at the centre of the beam for deflection

measurements.

3. Two electrical resistance strain gauges are mounted longitudinally in the

constant bending moment section, one on the tension face and one on the
compression face. They are connected to a strain indicator (blue box).

Figure 7. Schematic view of the beam under pure bending moment

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 Figure 8. Schematic view of the bending test setup

Procedure

1. Make sure the beam is properly centered on the test frame.

2. Make sure hangers are in notches on the beam. Periodically check to

make sure that they do not touch the inside of the frame.

3. Apply loads to each side simultaneously. Be careful not to drop weights or

place your hands under weight hangers at any time.

4. Apply loads in increments of 25 N to a maximum of 150 N.

5. Read and record deflection and strain for each load value.

6. Unload weights on each side simultaneously.

7. The instructors will take one setup to yield as a demonstration. Observe and
record relevant data for the beam selected by the instructor for loading
through the yield point to failure.

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 You can use Eq. 8 to calculate the maximum stress in the beam. The bending moment
𝑏ℎ 3
considering Fig. 7 is 𝑀 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑎, the moment of inertia of a rectangular cross-section 𝐼 = 12 ,
where b is the width and h is the height. The maximum deflection that happens in the middle of
𝑃𝑎𝐿2 𝐿2
the beam can be calculated by 𝛿 = 8𝐸𝐼
, and the radius of curvature is 𝜌 = 8𝛿. The Young
modulus is equal to 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

𝑀𝑐 (8)
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
𝐼𝑧

Analysis

1) Record load, top strain, lower strain, and deflection in the columns in the
experimental section in the table below. These are given directly by the data
acquisition box (blue box).

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2) Calculate the Top Stress and Lower Stress for each of the Loads.

Experimental Theoretical

Load Top Lower Defl Top Lower

Calc. Calc. Calc.
(N) Strain Strain (mm) Stress Stress
Defl Stress Strain
() () (MPa) (MPa)
(mm) (MPa) ()

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3) Compute the midspan deflection of the beam for each value of load and record the
values in the table in the theoretical section. Provide a sample calculation.

4) Plot a graph of load against deflection using both calculated and experimental
values. Compare the calculated deflections with deflections measured by the
transducer.

5) For each value of load for the beam compute the maximum flexural stress using
the flexure formula and fill in the columns in the theoretical section. Provide a
sample calculation.

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6) Compare the stress calculated from Hock’s law (use the strain from the
experimental result) to the theoretical stresses. Within what range would these
computed maximum stresses correspond to the actual maximum stress in the
beam?

7) Compute the midspan strains of the beam for each displacement and record in the
table. Provide a sample calculation.

8) Plot load against strain using both calculated and experimental values. Compare
the calculated strains with the strains measured.

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 9) From the deflection and length of the beam compute the radius of curvature at the
150 N load level.

10) Compare the graphs you have produced and discuss any errors (2-3 errors)
present in the results.

References

[1] Timothy A. Philpot, Jeffery S. Thomas, Mechanics of Materials: An Integrated Learning

System, 5th Edition (2019).

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