City University of Hong Kong

Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering

CA3632 Mechanics of Structures and Materials

Experiment E1: Torsion
Introduction
Torsion is encountered in many engineering applications. The most common application is the
transmission shafts, which are used to transmit power from one point to another. These shafts may either
be solid as shown in Fig. 1, or they may be hollow. From Fig. 1, we can find that torsion occurs when a
twisting couple or torque T is applied on the shaft, which results in relative rotation of two arbitrary
cross sections of the shaft.

L
B
B A
T
A

T
Fig. 1. Shaft under torsion.
Objectives
1. Examine the relationship between torque and angular deflection of a solid circular section.
2. Examine the relationship between torsional deflection and rod length at a constant torque.
3. Compare the torsional deflection of a solid rod and a tube with similar diameters.

Apparatus

Fig. 2. The apparatus for torsion experiment.

 As shown in Fig. 2, the apparatus consists of a backboard with chucks for gripping the test
specimen at each end. The right-hand chuck connects to a load cell using an arm to measure torque. A
protractor scale on the left-hand chuck measures rotation. A thumbwheel on the protractor scale twists
specimens. Sliding the chuck along the backboard alters the test specimen length. The backboard has
some formulae and data printed on it. Note this information it will be useful later.

The torsion apparatus has been fitted into a Test Frame, as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Apparatus in the structures frame.

Theory
As shown in Fig. 1,
TL
= ,
JG
where is the angular deflection; T is the torque, L is the length of shaft; J denotes the polar

moment of inertia of cross section of shaft; G is the shear modulus of the material.

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Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of both the solid steel rod and brass rods with the vernier as accurately as
possible (beware of a small error in the diameter!). Fill the results in Table 5 and Table 6.
2. Wind the thumbwheel down to its stop. Position the steel rod from the right-hand side with the
rubber tipped end sticking out. Line up the first mark (15mm) with the left-hand chuck (note the
jaws of the chuck move outward as they close!). Tighten it fully using the chuck key in the three
holes.
3. Undo the four thumbnuts which stop the chuck from sliding. Slide the chuck until the last mark (515
mm) lines up with the right-hand chuck. This procedure sets chuck using the chuck key in each of
the three holes.
4. Wind the thumbwheel until the force meter reads 0.3 N to 0.5 N. Zero the force meter and the angle
scale using the moveable pointer arm. Wind the thumbwheel so the force meter reads 5 N and then
back to zero. If the angle reading is not zero check the tightness of the chucks and start again.
5. Take readings of the angle every 1 N of force: you should take the reading just as the reading changes.
Take readings to a maximum of 5 N of force. Enter all the readings into Table 1. To convert the
load cell readings to torque multiply by the torque arm length (0.05 m).
6. Repeat the set up and procedure from Step 1 to Step 4 for the solid brass rod and enter your results in
Table 2 and Table 4.
7. Wind the thumbwheel so that the torque is 0.15 Nm (a reading of 3 N) and note down the angle in
Table 3.
8. Reduce the length of the solid brass rod to the next mark (450 mm) and reset. Take a reading of
angle at the same torque and record in Table 3. Repeat this procedure for lengths down to 300 mm
in Table 3.
9. Repeat Step 1 to Step 4 with the solid brass rod replaced by the hollow brass tube. Enter all the
readings into Table 4.

Experiment Report
1. From the results in Table 1 and Table 2, plot torque versus angle on the same graph for both solid steel
rod and solid brass rod. Comment on the shape of the graph. What does it tell us about how angle
of deflection varies because of an increased torque? Name at least three applications or situations
where torsional deflection would be undesirable and one application where it could be desirable or of
use. Take a look at the formulas on the backboard that predicts the behaviour of the rods. What
would happen to the relative stiffness of the rod if the diameter were increased from 3 mm to 4 mm?
2. Fill in Tables 4 and 5 from your experimental results in Table 1 and Table 2 to establish values of
TL and J . Remember you must convert your angle measurements from degrees to radians
(2radians = 360 ). Plot a graph of TL against J . Examine the torsion formula and explain
what the value of the gradient represents. Does the value compare favourably with typical ones?
3. Plot a graph of angular deflection against rod length from results in Table 3. Comment on the shape
of the plot.
4. Calculate the J values for the solid brass rod and hollow brass tube. Examine your results in
Table 4 and the J values you have calculated and comment on the effect of the missing material by
analyzing the results.
5. Assuming a density of 8450 kg/m3 for brass, work out the nominal mass per unit length of both the
hollow brass tube and the solid brass rod. Comment on the efficiency of designing torsional
members out of tube instead of solid material.

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Appendix
Table 1: Results for solid steel rod
Force Torque, T Angular deflection
(N) (Nm) ()
0 0 0
1
2
3
4
5

Table 2: Results for a solid brass rod

Force Torque, T Angular deflection
(N) (Nm) ()
0 0 0
1
2
3
4
5

Table 3: Results for a solid brass rod with different lengths

Dia. of brass rod Torque, T 0.15
(mm) (Nm)

Length Angular deflection

(m) ()
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50

Table 4: Results for solid brass rod and hollow brass tube
Force Torque T Rod angular deflection Tube angular deflection
(N) (Nm) () ()
0
1
2
3
4
5

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 Table 5: Calculated values for a solid steel rod
Diameter of steel section, d (mm)

(
Polar moment of inertia, J 1012 m 4 )
Length, L (m) 0.5

Torque Angular deflection,

TL J 1013
(Nm) (rad)
0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25

Table 6: Calculated values for a solid brass rod

Diameter of steel section, d (mm)

(
Polar moment of inertia, J 1012 m 4 )
Length, L (m) 0.5

Torque Angular deflection,

TL J 1013
(Nm) (rad)
0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25

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 City University of Hong Kong
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering
CA3632 Mechanics of Structures and Materials
Experiment E2: Column Buckling

Laboratory Test: Column buckling A: Determination of critical load of rods

General

A fundamental condition in all problems is the equilibrium of internal Fig. 1

and external forces. If the system of forces is disturbed owing to a small
displacement of a body, two principal situations are possible: either the
body will return to its original configuration owing to restoring forces
during displacement, or the body will accelerate farther away form its
original state owing to displacing forces. The latter situation is termed
instable equilibrium.

The instability of structural members subjected to compressive loading

(see Fig. 1(b)) may be regarded as a mode of failure, even though stress
may remain elastic, owing to excessive deformation and distortion of the
structure. This mode of failure is termed buckling and is prevalent in
members for which the transverse dimension is small compared with the
overall length.

Objective

To study the buckling of columns under axial load.

Theory

The critical buckling load Pc of a simply supported column is given by

2 EI
Pc = (1)
L2
where E is the Youngs modulus; L is the length of the column and I is the second moment
of area with b and t are the width and height of the column, respectively.

Apparatus

1. Vernier calipers and ruler.

2. Several steel and aluminum specimens with different slenderness ratios.
3. Loading frame with a set of standard weights.

Procedure

1. Measure the dimensions of a column, and calculate the second moment of area.
2. Place the column in the position of the loading frame.
3. Load the weight hanger with the necessary weights until the column is buckled as
shown in Fig. 2(b).
4. Record the data in the following form 1.

1
 5. Repeat the above process for the next specimen.

Fig. 2

(a) (b)

Form 1.

Width Height Length Weights Middle constrain Critical load

Specimen E (Pa)
b (mm) t (mm) L (mm) (kg) (Yes or No) Pc (kN)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Discussions and Results

1. Calculate the theoretic critical buckling load for each column from Eq. (1).
2. Compare the theoretic critical load with that obtained in the experiment.
3. Discuss the problems found from this experiment.

Test report should include the test objectives, procedures, calculation of theoretic critical
loads, test data, comparison with theoretic solutions and conclusions.

City University of Hong Kong

Department of Building and Construction
BC3632 Mechanics of Structures and Materials

Laboratory Test: Column buckling B: Determination of critical load of box section

columns

2
General

The load-deflection behavior for an ideal Euler column is illustrated in Fig 1(a). For applied
load up to the critical value Pc small transverse displacement u can be maintained under load
in a stable-equilibrium state. In the case of a real column, which incorporates some deficiency
such as eccentricity of loading, deflection will occur from the moment when load is applied
as shown in Fig 1(b). The curve becomes asymptotic to the critical load at large deflection.
The response of the column is almost linear when the ratio P / Pc is small. According to the
linear relationship between the axial load and the deflection of the column, the critical load
Pc can also be obtained.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Objective

To determine the critical load and the relationship between the axial load and the deflection
of the column.

Theory

The column is illustrated in Fig. 2, in which the initial maximum deflection is a0 , the value
of the deflection at D distance y from P is u 0 , and
y
u0 = a0 sin (1)
L
When the buckling load P is applied, the deflection at y is increased by u and the bending
moment at this point is M D , where
y
M D = P(u + u 0 ) = P(u + u 0 sin ) (2)
L
Hence
d 2u y
+ k 2 u + u 0 sin = 0 (3)

2
dy L
where k 2 = P / EI ; therefore

3
 k 2 a0 sin(y / L)
u = A cos(ky ) + B sin( ky ) + (4)
( 2 / L2 ) k 2
The boundary conditions are that at y =0 and y = L , u =0; then A =0 and B sin(kL) =0; and
since k is not zero, it follows that B =0. Therefore
k 2 a0 sin(y / L) Pa0 y Pa0 y
u= = 2 sin = sin (5)
( / L ) k
2 2 2
EI / L P L Pc P L
2

where Pc = 2 EI / L2 . At y = L / 2 , the increased deflection is given by

( Pc / P)u u = a0 (6)
Which shows that there is a linear relation between u and u / P , in Fig. 3(b), the intercept
on the axis of u being equal to a0 .

Fig. 3

Apparatus

1. Vernier calipers.
2. Buckling apparatus with a hydraulic jack.
3. Two aluminum box section columns with different lengths.
4. Displacement transducer.
5. Force transducer.

Procedure

1. Measure the dimensions of the column.

2. The test setup of the column is shown in Fig. 4. The force and displacement
transducers are installed with the hydraulic jack and in the middle of the column,
respectively.
3. Apply axial load at one end of the column. For each load increment (0.5kN), record
the load-displacement data in Form 1. It should avoid the occurrence of plastic
deformation in the long column.
4. Repeat the above steps for the short column, and the column is loaded to failure
condition.

Fig. 4

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 Form 1.

Long column Short column

Load P Deflection u Load P Deflection u
(kN) (mm) (kN) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Discussion and Results

1. Calculate the theoretical critical buckling loads for the two columns.
2. With the readings recorded, plot graphs of the deflection u against u / P .
3. From the graphs, according to the linear relation between u and u / P in Eq. (6),
determine the critical buckling loads of the two columns. Compare these results with
the theoretic ones.
4. Discuss the problems found from this experiment.

Test report should include test objectives, procedures, calculation of the theoretic critical
loads, plots, comparison with the theoretic solutions and conclusions.