BASIC ENGINEERING

LABORATORY, SCHOOL
OF CHEMICAL &ENERGY
ENGINEERING

THERMODYNAMICS AND MATERIAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY

(EXPERIMENT 6: TORSION OF BAR)

Group Member: Laboratory Stamp

Koh Han Qi (A20ET5005)

Chung Jing Yi (A20ET0055)

Fatin Nursyahraien Binti Mohd Fauzi (A20ET0070)

Omar Mohammed Ali Albaagari (A19ET4020)

Date of Submission: 17/12/2021 Date of Experiment: 12/12/2021

Lecturer’ Name: Section: SETK2711- 04

PM DR. SHAHRIR BIN HASHIM

Table of Contents

Abstract 1
1.0 Introduction 2
1.1 Objective 2
2.0 Theory 3
3.0 Apparatus 4
4.0 Methodology 4
5.0 Results 5
5.1 Calculation for Torque 7
5.2 Calculations for polar moment of inertia, J and value of modulus of
rigidity ,G 10
6.0 Discussion: 13
7.0 Conclusion 15
8.0 References 16
Abstract
The purpose of this experiment was to determine the modulus of rigidity, G of materials by
investigating the relationship between torque, T, and the angle of twist of the specimen, φ.
So, as to perform this experiment, the aluminium alloy, steel rod and nylon rod were placed
in a position at the base frame where one of the ends was clamped, and the other one of the
ends is function as when a load is applied to a hanger cord, it was allowed to rotate. In each
increment of 5N of weight on load hanger of aluminium alloy and steel rod as well as each
increment of 1N weight on load hanger of nylon rod, the data of the angle of twist of the
specimen, ˚ must be recorded. This is as regards obtaining the modulus of rigidity, G by
plotting graph of the angle of twist of the specimen, φ versus torque, T. From this
experiment, it should be shown that the torque, T and angle of twist, φ relationship will be
directly proportional to each other, and this is same goes to the relationship of angle of twist,
φ with the length of the shaft, L. However, the modulus of rigidity, G, is inversely
proportional to the angle of twist, φ, yet still proportional to the torque, T. For aluminium
alloy and nylon rod, two different lengths were considered in measurement, which is 400mm
and 200mm away from fixed clamp while 400mm is only considered for steel rod. Last but
not least, the experimental and theoretical values for modulus of rigidity, G will be compared
to each other to determine the percentage error during the experiment.

1
1.0 Introduction
Torsion is the twisting or wrenching of a body by the exertion of forces tending to turn
one end or part about a longitudinal axis while the other is held fast or turned in the opposite
direction. It occurs when it is twisted causing twisting force acting on the member, known as
torque, and the resulting stress is known as shear stress. This stress is added to the existing
shear stress due to vertical and lateral applied loads.

Torsion members are encountered in many engineering applications. The most

common application is provided by transmission shafts, which are used to transmit power
from one point to another. For example, a shaft is used to transmit power from the engine to
the rear wheels of an automobile. These shafts can be either solid or hollow.

Torsion is also a dominant structural action that will help to increase member shear
strength. The members are designed to resist the torsional shear stress depends on the rigidity
of the member cross-section. Therefore, edge beams should consider torsion in their design.
Vertical members such as columns and shear walls should be designed to resist dynamic
loadings such as earthquake and wind. The importance of considering the extra shear stresses
caused by torsional actions will provide stability and resistance against structural failure.

The effects of a torsional load applied to a bar are to impart an angular displacement
of one end cross-section with respect to the other end and to setup, shear stresses on any
cross-section of the bar perpendicular to its axis.

1.1 Objective
In this experiment, the objectives are to investigate the relationship between torque, T
and the angle of twist, ∅ of a circular cross-section specimen and also to determine the
Modulus of Rigidity, G of materials.

2
2.0 Theory
A circular shaft is considered to attach to a fixed support at one end. When a torque, T is
applied to the other end, the shaft with free end rotating through an angle called the angle of
twist, φ.

Torsion is analysed through the stress and strains in members of a circular cross section
subjected to twisting couples or torques, T. These couples have a common magnitude and
opposite senses. They are quantities of vectors which can be represented by curved arrows or
by pairs of vectors. As seen below, the general torque formulation is:

Τ =Ϝ . r
where Τ = torque (N.mm)
F = force applied (N)
r = radius of the rod (mm)

Shearing strain, γ is measured by the changes in the angles formed by the sides of that
element. It shows that:

Lγ =ρø

It can be arranged as:

ρø
γ=
L

where γ = shearing strain

ρ = length from the center to any point in the circle of the shaft

ø = angle of twist

L = length of the shaft

The shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft where ρ=c. Thus,

cø
γ max ¿
L

where γ max = maximum shearing strain

c = radius of the shaft

3
 Considering the case of a shaft of length, L and of uniform cross-section of radius, c
subjected to a torque, T at its free end. It can be related that the angle of twist and the
maximum shearing strain as shown above. However, in the elastic range, the yield stress is
not exceeded anywhere in the shaft. Hooke’s law applies that

τ max Tc
γ max ¿ =
G JG

Solving for ø, it shows that:

γ max L TL
ø= =
c JG

where ø = angle of twist

T = torque exerted on the shaft

J = polar moment of the inertia [π (c₂⁴ - c₁⁴)] / 2

G = modulus of Rigidity

3.0 Apparatus
Steel rod, aluminium alloy, nylon rod, ruler, digital caliper, and torsion bars testing machine
with load.

4.0 Methodology
One end of the base frame has a clamp, while the other has a short shaft with a three-
jaw chuck that face the clamp. The torsion head is at the outer side of the base frame. A
hanger cord with an effective diameter of 75mm has been wound around at the torsion head.
The specimens are held in place by the fixed clamp. The rotating chuck is assembled on the
base 450mm away with the degree scale. When the load is applied to the hanger cord, the
rotating chuck can be moved along the line of the specimen designated. Each time the load
was used, the angle of twist was measured.
1. The aluminium alloy was clamped in the position, and the load hanger was aligned to
the cord.

4
 2. The rotation scale and the pointer were placed 400mm away from the fixed clamp.
Then, the pointer had set to 0°.
3. The angle of twist of the specimen was recorded in Table 1 for each 5N weight
increment added to the load hanger until it reached 40 N.
4. The rotation scale and pointer were moved 200mm away from the fixed clamp after
removing the load.
5. Steps 1 until 4 are repeated, and all readings are recorded in Table 1.
6. The rod's diameter was determined and recorded. 
7. The specimen had changed to a steel rod, and the procedure above repeated for
400mm length only. The data was recorded in Table 2.
8. The steel rod was replaced with a nylon rod and clamped into place.
9. Then, step 2 above was repeated.
10. The angle of twist of the specimen was recorded in Table 3 for each 1N weight
increment added to the load hanger until it reached 5N.
11. The rotation scale and pointer were moved 200mm away from the fixed clamp after
removing the load.
12. Lastly, step 9 until 11 were repeated, and all readings are recorded in Table 3. The
nylon rod's diameter was determined and recorded.

5.0 Results
Data for Experiment 6 (Torsion of Bar)

Torsion head effective diameter: 75 mm

Table 1: Data for aluminum alloy rod

Diameter: 6.31 mm

Hanger Torque Torque Twist of rode

Load (N.mm) Over (N.mm) Over Over 400 Over 200
(N) 400 mm 200 mm mm mm (o)
(o)
5 187.5 187.5 1 0.5

5
 10 375.0 375.0 2 1.0
15 562.5 562.5 4 2.0
20 750.0 750.0 6 3.0
25 937.5 937.5 7 3.5
30 1125.0 1125.0 10 5.0
35 1312.5 1312.5 11 5.5
40 1500.0 1500.0 14 7.0

Table 2: Data for Steel rod

Diameter: 4.99 mm

Hanger Torque Twist over 400

Load (N) (N.mm) mm
(o)
5 187.5 0
10 375.0 0.5
15 562.5 2
20 750.0 4
25 937.5 6
30 1125.0 9
35 1312.5 11
40 1500.0 13

Table 3: Data for Nylon rod

Diameter: 6.525 mm

Hanger Torque Torque Twist of rode

Load (N.mm) Over (N.mm) Over Over 400 Over 200
(N) 400 mm 200 mm mm mm (o)
o
()
1 37.5 37.5 7.8 3.6
2 75.0 75.0 8.4 3.7
3 112.5 112.5 8.6 3.9
4 150.0 150.0 8.8 4
5 187.5 187.5 8.9 4.4
0 0 0 0 0

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5.1 Calculation for Torque
Torque , τ =r × F
Where:
 r = is the radius of the circular roller.
 F = is the magnitude of the force applied.

Aluminium Alloy Rod

Load= 5 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 5)=187.5 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 5 )=187.5 N . mm
2

Load = 10 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 10)=375.0 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 10 )=375.0 N . mm
2

Load= 15 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 15)=562.5 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 15 )=562.5 N . mm
2

Load= 20N

7
Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 20)=750.0 N . mm
75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 20 )=750.0 N . mm
2

Load = 25 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 25)=937.5 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 25 )=937.5 N . mm
2

Load = 30 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 30)=1125.0 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 30 )=1125.0 N . mm
2

Load = 35 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 35)=1312.5 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 35 )=1312.5 N . mm
2

Load = 40 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 40) =1500.0 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 40)=1500.0 N . mm
2

Steel Rod
Load= 5 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 5)=187.5 N . mm

8
Load = 10 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 10)=375.0 N . mm

Load= 15 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 15)=562.5 N . mm

Load= 20N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 20)=750.0 N . mm

Load = 25 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 25)=937.5 N . mm

Load = 30 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 30)=1125.0 N . mm

Load = 35 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 35)=1312.5 N . mm

Load = 40 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 40) =1500.0 N . mm

Nylon Rod

9
Load= 1 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 1)=37.5 N .mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 1 )=37.5 N .mm
2

Load = 2 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 2)=75.0 N .mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 2 )=75.0 N .mm
2

Load= 3 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 3)=112.5 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 3 )=112.5 N . mm
2

Load= 4 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 4 )=150.0 N .mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 4 )=150.0 N .mm
2

Load = 5 N

Torque Over 400 mm: ( 752 ) ( 5)=187.5 N . mm

75
Torque Over 200 mm: ( ) ( 5 )=187.5 N . mm
2

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5.2 Calculations for polar moment of inertia, J and value of modulus of
rigidity ,G

Aluminium alloy
Twist angel
M =Slop=
T
M 400 =0.0098 M 200 =0.0049

L
G= for the J=¿
mJ

M 400 = ( 0.0098400×155.64 ) ×( 180π )=15025.72 N /mm 2

M 200 = ( 0.0049200×155.64 )× ( 180π )=15025.72 N /mm 2

G 15025.72 +15025.72
average= =15025.72 N /mm2
2

Steel
Twist angel
M =Slop= M 400 =0.0105
T

L 400 180
G= =
mJ 0.0105 ×60.6869
×
π ( )
=35858.44 N /mm2

Nylon
Twist angel
M =Slop=
T
M 400 =0.0069 M 200 =0.0051

L
G= for the J=¿
mJ

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M 400 = ( 0.0069400×177.96 )× ( 180π )=18664.275 N /mm 2

M 200 = ( 0.0051200×177.96 ) × ( 180π )=12625.833 N /mm 2

G 18664.275 +12625.833
average= =15645.054 N /mm2
2

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Figure 3: Graph of Angle of Twist of rod against Torque for Aluminium Alloy

Figure 4: Graph of Angle of Twist of rod against Torque for Steel

Figure 5: Graph of Angle of Twist of rod against Torque for Nylon

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6.0 Discussion:
Throughout this experiment, we can conclude the angle of twist, φ is increasing linearly
to torque, T applied towards the materials, and it is directly proportional as mentioned in
theory based on Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5. The graph also depicted that the different
types of materials will exhibit the purely elastic behaviour as well as affect the angle of
twisted rod.

The formula given shown below:

φ⍺T

φ = TL/GJ

indicates that angle of twist is directly proportional to the torque in theory. Thus, it can be
concluded that the experiment does verify the torque/twist formula.

This equation can also be used to determine the modulus of rigidity, G of different types
of materials by knowing the value of length of the shaft, polar moment of inertia, angle of
twist and torque exerted on the shaft. By applying the formula, the experimental value of
modulus of rigidity, G obtained for aluminium alloy, steel and nylon are 15025.72 N/mm 2,
35858.44 N/mm2 and 15645.054 N/mm2 respectively while the value of G theoretical for
aluminium alloy, steel and nylon is 26200.00 N/mm2, 79000.00 N/mm2 and 75000 N/mm2
respectively. Table below shows the experimental value, theoretical value and percentage
value in this experiment.

%error = |(Experimental Value – Theoretical Value)/Theoretical value| x100%

Modulus of Rigidity, G
Types of (N/mm2) Percentage Error
Materials Experimental Theoretical (%)
Aluminium 15025.82 26200 42.65
Steel 35858.44 79000 54.61
Nylon 15645.05 75000 79.14
Table 4: Percentage error between experimental value and its theoretical value

14
 From Table 4, highest percentage error value is produced by nylon which is 79.14%,
followed by steel which is 54.61% and aluminium, 42.65% is the lowest percentage error
value. The difference between experimental values and the theoretical values is due to some
errors during the experiment is shown below:

1. Instrumental error – There might be impurities contained in the material used.

Besides, the material might be used for a long period and lead to the malformation of
specimens. This can also lead to reduction of elasticity.
2. Parallax error- The eyes are not perpendicular to the measurement markings when the
readings and causes inaccuracy in the value taken.
3. Environmental error - The inconsistency of temperature and humidity of the lab might
cause the specimen to expand or contract when the experiment is carried out.
4. External error – The load hanger might swing which lead to inaccurate readings of
rotation scale due to air movement.

To avoid the errors occurred during the experiment, there are some precautions can be
taken, including:

1. Ensure the rod is always in good condition and replace it with a new one if it is worn-
out.
2. Make sure the eyes are perpendicular with the scale of the spring balance to avoid
parallax error.
3. The experiment should be carried out in a lab with specific and consistent temperature
and humidity.
4. The experiment should be carried out in a closed environment and the fan is switched
off during the experiment.
5. The experiment is carried out for multiple times and the average values are obtained.

15
7.0 Conclusion
To put it concisely, the relationship between torque, T with the angle of twist, φ is
proven that to be directly proportional to each other through this experiment. This is same
goes to the relationship between the angle of twist, φ with the length of the shaft, L which is
clearly shown as to be directly proportional too. These two justifications also can be seen
from the equation below:

TL
∅=
JG

where ∅ = angle of twist

T = torqued exerted on the shaft

L = length of shaft

G = Modules of Rigidity

4
[π(c 2 −c 14 ) ]
J = polar moment of inertia,
2

From the experiment, 15025.72 N/mm2, 35858.44 N/mm2 and 15645.054 N/mm2 of modulus
of rigidity, G had obtained for aluminium alloy, steel and nylon respectively.

16
8.0 References
[1] F.P. Beer, J. E. Russell Johnston, J.T. Dewolf, D.F. Mazurek. 2009. Fifth Edition
Mechanics of Materials (SI Units), McGraw-Hill, New York.

[2] Yunus A. Cengel and Micheal A. Boles. 2006. Seventh Edition Thermodynamics, an
Engineering Approach, McGraw-Hill, New York.

[3] Beer, Johnston, DeWold. 2002. Mechanics of Materials McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

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