1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Tensile testing or also known as tension testing is a fundamental material

science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension
until failure. Tensile testing is performed for several reasons, and one of the reasons is
for selecting materials for engineering applications. Hence, by this tensile test, the
specimen can be justified to ensure its quality. The invention of this test also is to
consider the development of new materials and processes, so that it can be compared
with other existing materials behaviour. Moreover, with the presence of this tensile
test, the outcome can be regulated are the value of ultimate tensile strength, modulus
elasticity, yield strength of the material, fracture strength, and per cent of elongation.
In short, by this tensile testing, the specification of a material can be determined.

1.1 THEORY

When a sample metal undergoes the tensile test it will go through a few stages
of deformation and elongation. The metal with an original gauge length, Lo subjected
to the tensile test, by that the deformation and elongation, L the metal is occurring.
The first deformation of the metal is the elastic stage at this point a linear relationship
between stress and extension is usually observed for most metals and no damages for
the metals after the external force is removed. Then the yield stage occurred that also
known as the permanent plastic deformation, the metal atoms are permanently
displaced from their original position and take place of new positions. Besides that,
the tensile test is also can obtain the stress-strain diagram where mechanical
properties and overall behavior of the metals and alloys can be determined. The
tensile test is done until it hits the fracture point which is the necking point. By that,
the data of the experiment can be used to make the stress-strain graph and also
determined a few more results.
 Figure 1 Standard tensile test specimen

1. Firstly is the modulus of elasticity,E with the formula

∆σ P L
E= =( )( )
∆ε ∆L A

P
Where represents the slope of the elastic region of the load vs
∆L
elongation graph. L0 is the original gauge length of the test specimen and ∆ L
is the changes in elongation for the elastic region ¿ L−L0.

2. Next is the yield strength that is given as

Py
σ y=
Ao

Where P y =¿ load at yield point and Ao =¿ original cross-sectional area

(within the gauge length and before load P is applied). It is a very important
property for use in the design of the structure or engineering components
based on the elastic theories of failure. Besides that, it also a point where the
tested material begins to experience yielding or plastic deformation.

3. Furthermore, the ultimate tensile strength alos can be determine, which is the
maximum strentgh reached in the stress-starin curve. This also can be called
tensile strength.
 Pult
σ ult =
Ao

Where Pult =¿ ultimate load as given by the load vs elongation graph.

When the metal achieved its ultimed load, the deformation of the area
decressed gradually. At this part necking can occur or fracture.

4. In additional, the fracture stregth,σ f also can be retieved from the load at
fracture point, Pf , which is not reached during the test.

Pf
σ f=
Ao

Hence, for a very brittle materials such as glass or ceramic based materials
σ u =σ f .

5. Next, result that can be obtained is the percent of elongation,% ∆ L. The

amount of elongation that undergoes during tensile testing which is alsp
represnts the degree of ductility of the material. Consequently, the higher the
percent of elongation, the higher level of ductility of a the material.

100( Lf −LO )
% ∆ L=
LO

Where the Lf = final gauge length of the metal.

6. Lastly, is the percentage reduction in cross-sectional area,% ∆ RA, the ductility

of the material also can be expressed in terms of the percent reduction in area.

%RA=100 ¿ ¿

Percentage of elongation and percentage of reduction in area are also

can described material properties, that is normally called ‘formability
properties’ of the materials especially in the field of metal forming.
1.2 OBJECTIVE

To conduct the tensile testing and also to obtain the mechanical

behaviour and properties, such as the modulus of elasticity, yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength, fracture strength, per cent of elongation and
percentage of reduction area.
2.0 EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 APPARATUS

1. Universal testing machine

2. Dial indicators
3. Extensometer
4. Scale
5. Vernier caliper
6. Harmer and punch

2.2 PROCEDURE

1. By use of vernier calliper, the initial diameter of specimen was

measured.
2. By use of scale, the length of specimen was measured between the
grips.
3. Punch marks were made at a distance of 2.5d.
4. The universal testing machine was tested.
a) The hand wheel on the master cylinder was untwisted as far as it
will go and move the load frame to its lower position.
b) The gripping head was inserted in the upper cross- member and
the cross-head.
c) The gripping head was screwed down with the short bolt at
the bottom and with pressure pad.
d) The gripping head was screwed with the long bolt at the top.
5. The specimen was inserted into its position.
a) The specimen was screwed into the lower gripping head
by hand far as the end stop.
b) Then, the specimen was screwed into the upper gripping
head as far as the end stop by rotated the gripping head itself.
 c) The nut was tightened on the upper gripping head by
hand until the gripping head is seated without slack in the
upper cross-member.
6. The extensometer was attached to the specimen.
a) The rotating scale on the dial was set to zero.
b) The maximum pointer on the force display was set to zero.
c) The force-measuring sysrem was set to zero by
simultaneously pressed (1) and (2) on force display.
7. Experiment was conducted.
a) The specimen was slowly and constantly load by rotated the
hand wheel.
b) Application of the force extended over a period of 5 to 10
minutes.
c) The extensormeter readings was observed and noted. From 1
mm extension, the reading interval can be extended to 0.2 mm.
d) The specimen was monitored and recorded when constriction
begin. From now on, the sample will no longer increase but instead,
will tend to decrease.
e) The elongation was also recorded until the specimen failure.
f) The specimen was removed from the gripping heads.
g) The hand wheel was twisted back on the master cylinder as fas
as it will go and move the load frame down.
8. The final dimensions of specimen were measured and recorded.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Type of material: Mild Steel
Initial dimension of specimen (before load p is applied):
Original Gauge Length (L0) = 190 mm
Average Original Diameter (D0) = 12.34 mm
Final dimension of specimen (after Fracture):
Final Gauge Length (Lf) = 263.72 mm
Final Diameter (Df) = 8.21 mm

Table 1 Tensile Test Raw Data

Extensometer Reading in
Load, Ivory Scale
Division
(kN) Reading(mm)
A B Average
2.5 1 2 1.5 0.2
5.0 2 3 2.5 0.5
7.5 4 4 4.0 0.6
10.0 5 5 5.0 0.7
12.5 6 7 6.5 0.8
15.0 6 8 7.0 1.0
17.5 8 9 8.5 1.2
20.0 9 11 10.0 1.4
22.5 10 12 11.0 1.6
25.0 11 13 12.0 1.8
27.5 12 14 13.0 2.0
30.0 - - - 2.2
32.5 - - - 2.5
35.0 - - - 3.0
37.5 - - - 3.5
39.0 - - - 4.0
40.0 - - - 4.8
41.0 - - - 6.5
39.0 - - - 9.0
40.0 - - - 11.0
42.5 - - - 14.0
45.0 - - - 17.0
47.5 - - - 23.0
50.0 - - - 31.0
52.5 - - - 44.0
49.0 - - - 49.0
 46.0 - - - 51.0
44.0 - - - 52.0

Table 1 Result of Tensile test

Initial diameter in mm. 12.34
Length of the specimen
213
between the grips in mm.
Punch mark at a interval of
31.34
2.5d in mm.
Final Length between the 3-
87
punch mark in mm.
Final diameter in mm. 8.21
Original cross section area in
119.54
mm2.
Final area cross sectional at
52.91
neck in mm2
Least count (LC) in mm. 0.01
Gauge length of the
120
extensometer in mm

Table 3 Stress-strain Data

STRESS, σ STRAIN, ε
0.02091 0.00105
0.04183 0.00263
0.06274 0.00316
0.08365 0.00368
0.10457 0.00421
0.12548 0.00526
0.14639 0.00632
0.16731 0.00737
0.18822 0.00842
0.20914 0.00947
0.23005 0.01053
0.25096 0.01158
0.27188 0.01316
0.29279 0.01579
0.31370 0.01842
 0.32625 0.02105
0.33462 0.02526
0.34298 0.03421
0.32625 0.04737
0.33462 0.05789
0.35553 0.07368
0.37644 0.08947
0.39736 0.12105
0.41827 0.16316
0.43918 0.23158
0.40990 0.25789
0.38481 0.26842
0.36808 0.27368

Table 4 Calculated result of the tensile test

NO MECHANICAL PROPERTIES RESULT (UNITS)

1 Modulus of Elasticity 210.8 GPa
2 Yield Strength 342.98 N/mm2
3 Ultimate tensile strength 439.18 N/mm2
4 Fracture strength 368.08 N/mm2
5 Ductility: Based on % EL 38.8 %
6 Ductility: Based on % RA 55.74 %
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

1)

Graph Load (kN) vs Elongation (mm)

60 ULTIMATE STRENGTH

YIELD STRESS
50

40
Load (kN)

FRACTURE POINT
30
PLASTIC REGION
20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Elongation (mm)
ELASTIC REGION

Figure 1 Graph of Load vs Elongation

Calculation:
41000
i. Yield Strength= =¿ 342.98 N/mm2
119.54

52500
ii. Ultimate Tensile Strength= =¿ 439.18 N/mm2
119.54

44000
iii. Fracture Strength= =¿ 368.08 N/mm2
119.54
2)

Graph Load (kN) vs Extensometer (mm)

30

25
25

20
Load (kN)

15

10

5
5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Elongation (mm)

Figure 2 Graph of Load vs Extensometer for Elastic Region

Calculation:
25−5
i. Slope= =2.10
12−2.5

ii.
Modulus of elascity=
slope × ( Lc1 ) ( Gauge Length ) = 2.10 × 0.011 × 120
Ao 119.54
= 210.8 GPa
 ( Lf −Lo)
3) i. Percentage of EL(%)=∆ L= × 100
Lo
(263.72−190)
¿ × 100
190
¿ 38.8 %

( Ao− Af )
ii. Percentage of RA(%)=∆ RA= × 100
Ao
(119.54−52.91)
¿ ×100
119.54
¿ 55.74 %
DISCUSSION

Figur
e 3 Graph of Stress vs Strain Curve

Based on Figure 3 above, the graph shown is stress-strain curve for mild steel that
obtained from the experiment. It is same with load-elongation graph that can be shown in Figure
1. Whereby, the x-axis for strain value is a division between elongation to the initial gauge
length. The stress value which is the y-axis is came from stress formula whereby the load is
divided by original cross section area.

When external tensile load is applied on a mild steel, initially it will undergoes elastic
deformation. An elastic deformation is recoverable, while a plastic deformation is permanent.
Ability of a material to exhibit plastic deformation before fracture is the indication of ductility.
Materials that show substantial plastic deformation under external loading like mild steel are
called ductile materials. This can be seen in Figure 3 whereby the straight line between zero to
point A represent the ratio of stress-strain or Young’s Modulus. It is known as limit of
proportionality. If the force is greater, the material will experience elastic deformation and the
ratio of stress-strain curve will not proportional anymore. The points between A and B, known as
the elastic limit. Beyond the elastic limit, which is point B (yield point), the mild steel will begin
to experience plastic deformation. The line is no longer straight where it curves from point C,
which is lower yield point, to point D (ultimate tensile strength). After that, the specimen will
undergo necking process where the sectional area of the specimen begins to decrease in a
localized region. As a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to form in this region as specimen
elongates further. Specimen finally break at point E (fracture point).

The Comparison between the experimental and theoretical result and value in this Tensile
Experiment is containing the value of Modulus of Elasticity, Yield Strength, Ultimate tensile
strength, Fracture strength, Ductility: Based on Elongation Percentage and Ductility: Based on %
Reduction Area percentage. Based on theoretical and experimental comparisons are different
because the value of Modulus of elasticity (E) for the theory (209.1GPa) and 210.8GPa for
experimental value obtained. Therefore, others calculation such ultimate tensile strength and
fractures strength that used or linked the value of Modulus of elasticity (E) will be differ in term
of value both kind data which is experimental and theory.

Yield Strength is yield stress that obtained by divided load at yield point (Py) with
original cross-sectional area (Ao) within the gauge length and before load P is applied. This
Properties is important in term of designing engineering component based on the elastic theories
failures. This Yield Strength also the point when the materials begin to experience yielding or
Plastic deformation. The Theory value for yield strength for this experiment is 342.18 N/mm2
otherwise the experimental value is 342.98 N/mm2. Moreover, Ductility is defined as the ability
of a material to deform plastically before fracturing. The usage of Elongation % and reduction
Area% have same purpose that to measuring the ductility of the materials. Thus, the theory and
experimental value for ductility based on elongation percentage and reduction area percentage is
same toward each other which is 38.8% and 55.74% caused influenced by type of metallic
material which is used same material either in experiment or theory.
 The main factors that may be considered as experimental errors is random error. This
might happen when the dial gauge is showing the not accurate data for an elongation for the
specimen producing the error for an experiment. Thus, it effecting the reading of elongation
value and all about calculation in this experiment that used elongation value will be wrong.

Moreover, random error such as users careless in recording data obtain from experiment
also can be a factor that make experimental errors and ruined all the result and data. Furthermore,
zero error may also occur due to the lack of vernier caliper calibration. Usually, zero error occur
in Vernier caliper when not showing absolute zero reading when it is totally closed. Then to
obtain the accurate data, users must to minus or add the particular value in each of the
measurements. Moreover, the consideration of putting the test specimen on the universal testing
machine is also important. The main purpose of this to make sure the test specimen is tied
orderly at grips for holding test specimen firmly at fixed head in order to avoid the specimen
became loosen from that machine during the experiment. It is also helping to minimize any kind
of error popup when experiment was held.

Moreover, systematic error such as Parallax error also be a source of error for this
experiment. This scenario associated with measuring and recording the data process from the
measurement apparatus. Usually this error happened when the user’s eye being some distance
away from the object of measurement and not viewed from the correct position. Therefore, the
recorded data become not accurate and needed users to repeat again the measurement process for
get most accurate data. Thus, will supply the correct data from an experiment for calculation
needed in this experiment.
CONCLUSION

In Conclusion, Tensile Test purpose may be a way of determining how something will
react when it's pulled apart when a force is applied thereto in tension. Tensile testing is one
among the only and most generally used mechanical test. By measuring the force required to
elongate a specimen to verge of collapse, material properties are often determined which will
allow Designers and quality managers to predict how materials and products will behave
application in real world. Hooke’s law can define the characteristic the behavior of fabric
supported data of stress and strain curve by using universal testing machine. This experiment
therefore gives close relationship of lastingness to the theoretical data and experiment buckling
test. The changes encountered in cross sectional area can't be influenced by engineering stress-
strain relationships; the changes can only be possible for true stress-strain curves. Normally, true
strains are of upper values than those of engineering strains. within the graph, it often seen that
for engineering stress- strain curves, the curves drop downwards after necking has occurred.

REFERENCES

Difference Between Ductile Material and Brittle Material. Retrieved January 8, 2021, from
http://www.difference.minaprem.com/solid/difference-between-ductile-material-and-brittle-
material/.

Stress-Strain Curve for Mild Steel with Stress-Strain Relationship. (2017, April 17). Retrieved
January 8, 2021, from https://basicmechanicalengineering.com/stress-strain-curve-for-mild-steel-
with-stress-strain-relationship/.

Mechanics of Material 6th edition Ferdinand p. Beer. Retrieved January 9, 2021 from Chapter 2:
Stress and strain – axial loading.