15FELE221

Sensors
Chapter 9
Adapted from: Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems
Compiled By: Mohammad Zaki and Hania El-Kanj
 ▪ Why do Sensors matter?
▪

• Identify and classify sensors from method of

action
• Select sensors for a mechatronic system
based on performance specifications

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Sensors

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Sensors
▪

Physical Property
Signal Sensor
(may be high
Conditioning (Transducer)
power density)

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Also defined as the gain. 𝜕𝑦
𝑆=
𝜕𝑥

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Sensitivity and Dynamic Range

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Linearity Response Time and Time Constant

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Bandwidth

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Sensors vs. Transducers

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Basis For Comparison Sensor Transducer

Definition Senses the physical The transducer is a

changes that occurs in device which, when
the surrounding and actuates it transforms
converts it into a the energy from one
readable quantity. form to another.
Components Sensor itself Sensor and signal
conditioning
Function Detects the changes and Conversion of one form
induces the of energy into another.
corresponding electrical
signals.
Examples Proximity sensor, Thermistor,
Magnetic sensor, Potentiometer,
Accelerometer sensor, Thermocouple, etc.
Light sensor etc.
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Transducers
• Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
• Displacement Measurement
• Stress (Strain Gauge)
• Capacitive Transducers
• LVDT
• Magnetic Field Measurement
• Hall Effect
• Ultrasound
• Ultrasonic
• Temperature
• Bimetallic Strips
• Resistance Temperature Detectors
• Thermistor
• Thermodiodes and Transistors
• Thermocouple
• Resistance Measurement
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• Potentiometer
Displacement and Position Measurements
These sensors are used to measure size, shape, and
position.
A Strain gauge (sometimes referred to as a Strain
gage) is a transducer whose resistance varies with
applied force.
Applications ➔ On bridges, in refineries, aerospace

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Strain Gauge: Gauge Factor
• Remember: for a strained thin wire
• DR/R = DL/L – DA/A + Dr/r (proven)
• A = p (D/2)2, for circular wire
• A= w x h , for rectangular prism cable
• r is the resistivity of the material = R.A/L (Ω.cm)
• ℰ=DL/L is the strain in the wire.

• Poisson’s ratio, 𝜂 or 𝛎: relates change in height “h” to change in

length “L”
• Dh/h = - 𝜂 DL/L and Dw/w = - 𝜂 DL/L
• Thus
• DR/R = (1+2 𝜂) DL/L + Dr/r
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect

• Gauge Factor, G, used to compare strain-gauge materials

• G = DR/R = (1+2 𝜂) + Dr/r

DL/L DL/L
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Strain Gauge Example
If a 120 Ω strain gauge with gauge factor 2.0 is used to measure
a strain of 100 μ, how much does the resistance of the gauge
changes from the unloaded state to the loaded state?
Resistance of strain gauge R = 120 Ω
Gauge Factor G = 2.0
Strain = ∆𝐿/𝐿 = 100 µ

∆𝑅/𝑅
𝐺=
∆𝐿/𝐿

∆𝑅/𝑅= G* ∆𝐿/𝐿 = 2.0 * 100 * 10−6 =2 ∗ 10−4

∆𝑅 = 𝑅 ∗ 2 ∗ 10−4 = 120 * 2 ∗ 10−4 = 0.024 Ω

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 Displacement and Position Measurements
• Capacitive transducers determine the
quantities like displacement, pressure and
temperature etc. by measuring the
variation in the capacitance of a capacitor.
• The following variations can be utilized to
make capacitance-based sensors.

– Change distance between the parallel electrodes.

– Change the overlapping area of the parallel electrodes.
– Change the dielectric constant.

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Capacitive Transducers
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is Air escape
hole

air

 r 0 A
C= Parallel plate
Liquid
Fuel tank
Tank
d capacitor

– A: overlapping area of plates (m2)

– d: distance between the two plates of the capacitor (m)
– Ɛo: permittivity of air or free space 8.85pF/m
– Ɛr: dielectric constant

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Capacitive Transducers Example
Consider a capacitor consisting of two parallel conductive plates in
parallel. Each conductive plate has a width w of 0.1 m and length of 0.5
m. The distance d between the two plates is 0.1 m.
The relative permeability of the dielectric εr is 1. Given that the
permittivity of free space ε0 is 8.854 x 10-12 F.m-1 determine the
capacitance of this transducer.
If the overlap of the plates is reduced by moving one plate horizontally
a distance x of 50 mm, determine the new value of capacitance.

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Capacitive Transducers Example -Solution
𝜀𝑟 .𝜀0 .𝐴 1 ∗8.854 𝑥 10−12 ∗0.1 ∗0.5
𝐶= = = 4.427x10-12 F
𝑑 0.1

After overlap is reduced ➔

𝜀𝑟 .𝜀0 .(𝐴−𝑤𝑥) 1 ∗8.854 ∗ 10−12 ∗[ 0.1 ∗0.5 − 0.1∗0.05 ]
𝐶= = =3.9843x10-12 F
𝑑 0.1
What did you notice?

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Capacitive Transducers Example
A liquid tank is using a capacitive transducer to measure the
liquid level inside the tank. Initially the liquid level is at 80%
from the full capacity of the tank. After some time of
consumption the liquid level is reduced by 10%. Calculate
the percentage of the capacitance change, if the tank
dimensions are (W x L x H is 2m x 2m x 4m respectively).
Air escape
hole

air

Parallel plate
Liquid
Fuel tank
capacitor Tank

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Capacitive Transducers Example - Solution

𝜀𝑟 . 𝜀𝑜 . 𝐴 𝜀𝑟 . 𝜀𝑜 . 𝐴
𝐶80% = 𝐶70% =
𝑑 0.9𝑑

The percentage of the capacitance

𝐶80% −𝐶70%
change is ∗ 100%
𝐶80%

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Magnetic Field Transducers
• Hall effect transducers Hall Effect Sensor Sensing a Shaft Speed

were developed by
Edwin Hall in 1879;
and hence the name
Hall effect

• Used to:
• provide noncontact
means to detect and
measure magnetic field

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Hall Effect Transducers
• Presence of magnetic field Depiction principle of the Hall Effect
deflects electrons flowing
through conductive material

• As electrons move to one end of

conductive material:
• Potential is developed in direction
perpendicular to gross current flow
• Potential indicates strength of
magnetic field
• It’s one of the types of Proximity
sensors which are used to
measure speed, position

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 Hall Effect Transducers: Applications
• IC Engine Electronic Ignition Systems
• Used to determine position of cam shaft
• Brushless DC Motor Control
• Sensors determine position of permanent magnet rotor
• Assembly Lines
• To determine shaft position and velocity
• As contactless limit switches
• Current Sensing ICs
• Electrically isolated alternative to shunt resistors

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Hall Effect Sensor Types
• Linear Hall Effect Sensors
• Output is proportional to magnetic field strength
• Hall Effect Digital Switches
• Presence of magnetic field above threshold turns switch on
• Presence of magnetic field below threshold turns switch off
• Hall Effect Digital Latches
• North field turns latch on
• South field turns latch off

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Ultrasonic Transducer
• Ultrasonic transducer (piezoelectric transducer) is a
device that converts electrical energy into ultrasound

• Upon receiving sound echo (pressure wave) back from

surface, ultrasound transducer will turn sound waves
into electrical energy which can be measured and
displayed

• Ultrasound are sound waves above normal range of

human hearing (greater than 20K hertz).

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Ultrasonic Transducer
▪Since piezoelectric crystal generates voltage when force is
applied to it, same crystal can be used as an ultrasonic generator
and detector
▪ Some systems use separate transmitter and receiver
components while others combine both in single piezoelectric
transceiver
▪Alternative methods for creating and detecting ultrasound
include magnetostriction and capacitive actuation.
Pulse echo
sensor

Transmit-Receive
sensor
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Ultrasonic Transducer
• Sound is transmitted through propagation of pressure
in air
• Speed of sound in air is normally 331 m/sec at 0oC and
343 m/sec at 20oC for dry air
• Digital signal processor embedded in sensor calculates
distance between sensor and object

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Ultrasonic Transducer
▪X = vsound . t
▪Where:
▪ Vsound is known
▪ t = 0.5 (time of flight)
▪ X is distance between sensor head and object
▪Range of sensor varies between 5 cm to 20 m
▪Sensor is not appropriate for very short distance
measurements
▪Frequency response (distance measurement update
rate) varies with distance measured
• In general, it is about 100 Hz

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Ultrasonic Transducer
•Piezoelectric crystals have property of changing
size when voltage is applied.
•Applying alternating current (AC) across them
causes them to oscillate at very high
frequencies
• Producing very high frequency sound waves
•Ultrasonic sensors work on principle similar to
radar or sonar
•Radar and Sonar evaluate attributes of target
•Interpreting echoes from radio or sound waves respectively

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 Ultrasonic Transducer Applications
▪ Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes):
▪ Come in variety of different shapes and sizes for use
in making pictures of different parts of body
▪ Transducer may be:
▪ Passed over surface of body such as belly of a
pregnant woman OR
▪ Inserted inside the body
▪ Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided procedures
often use probe positioning system to hold the ultrasonic
transducer.

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Ultrasonic Transducer Applications
▪Technology can be used for measuring:
• wind speed and direction (anemometer),
• speed through air or water
• fullness of tank
• amount of liquid in tank
• sensor measures distance to surface of fluid.
•Other applications include:
• in robots for obstacle avoidance
• burglar alarms
• non-destructive testing, and etc…

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Temperature Transducers
❑Bimetallic strips:
❖Two different metal strips are bonded together
❖The metals have different coefficient of expansion
❑Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) :
❖Uses the linear change of resistance with temperature.
❑Thermistors
❖All small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal oxides
❖Thermistors come in various forms
❖Non-linear relationship between R and T
❖Advantages
❖Rugged; can be small; fast response time; large resistance
changes/ degree
❑Thermo-diodes and transistors
❖When the temperature of doped semiconductors changes, the
mobility of their carrier changes and affects the rate of electrons and
holes diffusion across p-n.
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Thermocouple Transducer

❑Thermocouples:
❖Circuit composed of a hot junction and reference junction.
❖Junction: two different metals joined together ➔V across
the junction
❖V depends on T and the type of metals
❖A compensation circuit can be used to compensate for the
cases when the cold junction is not kept at constant 0°C

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Thermocouple Transducer
• Law of leadwire temperatures. The thermoelectric voltage due to two
junctions in a circuit consisting of two different conducting metals
depends only on the junction temperatures T1 and T2. The leads away
from the junctions (T3, T4, T5) does not influence the measured voltage.
Therefore, shielding the leadwires from environmental conditions isn’t
necessary.
• Law of intermediate leadwire metals. A third metal C introduced in the
circuit constituting the thermocouple has no influence on the resulting
voltage as long as the temperatures of the two new junctions (A-C and
C-A) are the same (T3 = T4). As a consequence of this law, a voltage
measurement device that creates two new junctions can be inserted
into the thermocouple circuit without altering the resulting voltage.

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Thermocouple Sensor
Junction pairs at T1 and T3 produce the same voltage as two sets of
junction pairs spanning the same temperature range (T1 to T2 and T2 to
T3)
V 1/3 = V 1/2 + V 2/3

This equation can be read: The voltage resulting from measuring

temperature T1 relative to T3 is the same as the sum of the voltages
resulting from T1 relative to T2 and T2 relative to T3. This result
supports the use of a reference junction to allow accurate
measurement of an unknown temperature based on a fixed reference
temperature 37
Thermocouple Sensor
The voltage produced between two metals A and B is the same as the
sum of the voltages produced by each metal (A and B) relative to a third
metal C according to:
V A/B = V A/C + V C/B

This equation can be read: The voltage resulting from measuring

temperature of metal A relative to metal B is the same as the sum of
the voltages resulting from A relative to C and C relative to B. This
result supports the use of a reference junction to allow accurate
measurement of an unknown temperature based on a standard
reference metal (e.g., platinum) which is used as a basis to calibrate all
other metals. 38
Thermocouple Material Vs EMF
Types T, J, and K are most commonly used thermocouples

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Measuring Temperature
The following table lists voltages as a function of temperature for
common thermocouple pairs.

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Thermocouple Exercises
If a J-type thermocouple is used in a standard two-junction
thermocouple configuration with a 0°C reference temperature,
what voltage would result for an input temperature of 200°C?
Reference Junction = 0 °C
Thermocouple Junction = 200 °C
Known Reference = 0°C

From Table of known reference (ice) 0 °C➔

V200/0 = 10.777 mV

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Thermocouple Exercises
Using a K-type thermocouple with a fixed 0°C reference, how much
would the voltage reading change if the measurement temperature
changes from 10°C to 120°C?
Reference Junction = 0 °C
Thermocouple Junction = 10 °C ➔ A
Thermocouple Junction = 120 °C ➔ B

From Table of known reference (ice) 0 °C➔

V10/0 = 0.399 mV
V120/0 = 4.191 mV

Voltage Reading Change = V120/0 - V10/0 = 4.191 mV – 0.399 mV = 3.792 mV

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Thermocouple Exercises
A K-Type two-junction thermocouple configuration is being used to
measure the temperature in a wind tunnel. The reference junction is
held at a constant temperature of 20°C. We have only a
thermocouple table referenced to 0°C. We want to determine the
output voltage when the measuring junction is exposed to an air
temperature of 100°C.
Reference Junction = 20 °C
Thermocouple Junction = 100 °C
Known Reference = 0°C

V100/0 = V100/20 + V20/0

From Table of known reference (ice) 0 °C➔

V100/0 = 4.095 mV
V20/0 = 0.798 mV

V100/20 = V100/0 – V20/0 = 4.095 mV – 0.798 mV = 3.297 mV

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Thermocouple Exercises
If a K-type thermocouple is used in a standard two-junction
thermocouple configuration with a 100°C reference temperature,
what measurement temperature would correspond to a measured
voltage of 33.23 mV?
Reference Junction = 100 °C
Thermocouple Junction = ??? °C = J
Known Reference = 0°C

VJ/0 = VJ/100 + V100/0

From Table of known reference (ice) 0 °C➔

V100/0 = 4.095 mV
VJ/100 = 33.23 mV (given in the problem statement)

VJ/0 = 33.23 mV + 4.905 mV = 38.135 mV

From Graph of known reference (ice) 0 °C➔ By Interpolation

T = 950 °C 44
Other Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
• compass (magnetic): direction
• photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
• piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
• microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
• chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
• DNA arrays: match DNA sequences

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