Instrumentation

L3. Signal Conditioning; Bridge Circuit model,

Differential, Instrumentation & Charge Amplifiers

Prof J.W.McBride
Revision: Op-Amps Summary

• Often used in instrumentation to:

– Boost the amplitude of the signal
– Buffer the signal
– Convert a signal current into a voltage
– Separate a difference signal from unwanted, common–mode signals

• Desired full–scale output is typically 0 to +5V, or 0 to +10V

• This is the level accepted by most:

– Sample and hold units
– Analogue multiplexers
– ADC's

• Two types
– Instrumentation Amplifier
– Charge Amplifier, for Active Sensors.
Revision: Standard Op-Amp Circuits
Inverting Amplifier Summing Amplifier

Non-Inverting Amplifier

Differentiator

Voltage Follower
Integrator
Revision: Bridge Circuits
Sensors such as platinum resistance thermometers, thermistors and
strain gauges give a very small change in resistance on top of an initial
resistance. The most common circuit to enable the measurement is an
active bridge circuit based on a typical Wheatstone bridge.

R1 R3

R2 R4 temp

The voltmeter is almost ALWAYS a high gain (Op) amplifier and/or a

data acquisition system.
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 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits
Method:
1) Identify the network you want to simplify (this
will be part of a larger network)
2) Find RTH, by setting all sources to zero and
simplifying the resulting network.
3) Find VTH – it is the open circuit voltage of the
network.
4) Use the equivalent circuit to solve your problem.

A
A

B
B
“Black
Box”
Revision DC Bridge Circuits: Thevenin Model
• The most common form of the resistive bridge is the four arm arrangement

+ A
R1 R3
D
V V out

B
- R2 R4
C

R1 //R2
• Vout can be found using the
Thevenin equivalent circuit
R2 R4
V −
R1 +R2 R3 +R4

R3 //R4
Revision: Open Circuit Potential Difference;
and Short Circuit Resistance

R4
pd B = V
R3 + R4
R2
pd D = V
R1 + R2

∴Voc = V ( R2
−
R4
)
R1 + R2 R3 + R4
R2 R1 R3 R4
Rsc = +
R2 + R1 R3 + R4
Revision: Differential amplifier
• Amplifies difference between two input voltages V1 and V2 and has the
advantage of Noise Reduction called CMRR.
Rf

Rin

Rin

V1 V2 Vout
Rf

Rf
Vout = (V2 − V1 )
Rin
• Resistors Rin and Rf set gain of differential amplifier

• However, the input impedance of the resistors is much lower than the input
impedance of the op-amp, therefore to improve the performance we add two
voltage follower’s to the input side.
Differential Amplifiers

• V1 and V2 now connected straight into inputs of a pair of voltage followers –

(very high impedance)

• The two voltage follower op-amps drive current through the differential
amplifier resistors, instead of transducers having to drive the current…

• However, in this circuit, we have to balance 4 resistors in order to alter the

gain of the amplifier.
Instrumentation Amplifier
• Instrumentation amplifier constructed by now linking the two buffer circuits
together using 3 additional resistors.

• If all resistors are nominally the same (R1) apart from Rgain, then amplifier gain is
simply controlled by modifying the value of Rgain.
2𝑅𝑅1
• Overall voltage gain in amplifier, 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 =1+
𝑅𝑅𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
Common mode mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

• differential mode gain = ADM

– Vout= ADM(V1-V2)

• common mode input = VCM

– VCM=(V1+V2)/2

• common mode gain is ACM

• Common mode rejection ratio CMRR is

measure of how well amplifier performs
the rejection of common mode input

• CMRR(dB)=20log10(ADM / ACM)

• CMRR is frequency dependant, so is

usually expressed at a reference
excitation frequency
CMRR examples

• So, if we have a CMRR of 90 dB, what is the ratio of gain of the common
mode noise signal to the actual differential signal?

– Recall: CMRR(dB) = 20log10(ADM / ACM)

– 90dB/20 = log10 (ADM / ACM)

– So (ADM / ACM) ratio = 10^(90/20) ≈ 31000;

– so instead of getting amplified, CM signal is thus attenuated 31000-fold!

Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier
compared to conventional differential amplifier

– Very high input impedance – transducer signal not corrupted by

current flow into amplifier

– Voltage gain can be set by one resistor.

– High common mode rejection ratio : voltage signals common to both

signal lines are rejected

– Can have very accurate gain, with laser-trimmed, temperature-

matched resistors.

– Low component count and circuit board footprint.

Summary….

For what applications would you select an instrumentation amp?

– Bridge circuits e.g. strain gauge
– Small differential signals, with strong common-mode signals

Instrumentation amp characteristics:

– Voltage gain from differential input (V1-V2) to single-ended output
can be set by 1 resistor
– Input impedance is very high – transducer signal not corrupted by
current flow into amplifier
– Common mode rejection ratio : voltage signals common to both
signal lines are rejected to high dB levels

Practical selection:
– Monolithic devices use highly accurate resistors, and are
competitively priced
– Be careful about connecting inst-amp to ADC – settling time
Charge Amplifier with Accelerometer
• Always use a charge amplifier with a piezo-
accelerometer

• Ra, Rc and Rp are usually very large so circuit and be simplified

• Ct = Ca + Cc + Cp

• To find Vout and the circuit sensitivity:

Vout = − A ⋅ V1
 1
∴ Vc = Vout − V1 = 1 +  ⋅ Vout
 A
• Since current into op-amp is zero:
∴ I a + I c + I1 = 0
dVc  1  dV
Now : I c = C f = C f 1 +  ⋅ out
dt  A  dt
dV  1  dV
And : I1 = Ct 1 = −Ct ⋅   ⋅ out
dt  A  dt
dQ  1  dV  C  dV Qa
∴ a + C f 1 +  ⋅ out −  t  ⋅ out = 0 Vout ≈ −
dt  A  dt  A  dt Cf
Qa
Hence : Vout = − Vout ∝ Qa ∝ x
 1 1
 1 +  ⋅ C f −   ⋅ Ct
 A  A
• If the gain of the amplifier is very large then A→∞ Vout not dependant on Ct
Summary
• Differential Op Amp….used to reduce Common Mode (CM)
noise.

• Instrumentation Amp….Commercial implementation of the

above.

• Charge Amp…..to be used with piezo-electric sensors,

(accelerometers, pressure sensors etc.). KEY this amplifier
must be used otherwise the output voltage will vary will be
changed by he relationship between frequency and the
cable capacitance etc. The output will be wrong!!!!

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