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D-17B (D17B) missile guidance computer from the Minuteman I NS-1OQ missile : 28
kg, 1,521 transistors, 6,282 diodes, 1,116 capacitors, and 504 resistors.
Gaß, Siegfried. "Physical analog models in architectural design." International
Journal of Space Structures 31, no. 1 (2016): 16-24.
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• An op amp is a directcoupled, high gain voltage amplifier designed
to amplify signals over a wide frequency range.
• It is basically a differential amplifier responding to the difference in
the voltages applied to the positive and negative input terminals.
• Singleinput op amps corresponds to the special case where the +
input is grounded.
Characteristic of an Ideal Op-Amp
Characteristic of an Ideal Op-Amp
Characteristic of an Ideal Op-Amp
One practical limitation that cannot be ignored is that, for linear operation, the
output voltage vo cannot exceed ± VCC.
Inverting Circuit Applications
The signal voltage is inverted, the feedback current is of opposite sign and iF tends to
cancel the input current i1, leaving only a very small difference ii.
This can be translated to an output signal
amplitude of 12 V.
The conversion involves a weighted sum
corresponding to the output of the op amp
summing circuit.
Example 2:
R1
v1
R2
v2
R3
v3
R4
v4
Example 2:
R1
v1
R2
v2
R3
v3
R4
v4
Example 2:
10 kΩ
v1
20 kΩ
v2
40 kΩ
v3
80 kΩ
v4
R-2R Ladder of OP Amp DAC
For accurate conversion, the inputs to a summingcircuit DAC would have to be precisely
known voltages, a condition that is not required in digital systems.
In practice, the R2R ladder (as shown in fig. ) is far superior.
R-2R Ladder of OP Amp DAC
Replacing Ladder by its Thevenin equivalent. With all sources removed, resistance to the
left of node 4 is R + R = 2R.
Equivalent resistance to the left of the node 3 is R + 2R||2R = 2R, and same for nodes 2
and 1.
R-2R Ladder of OP Amp DAC
Replacing Ladder by its Thevenin equivalent. With all sources removed, resistance to the
left of node 4 is R + R = 2R.
Equivalent resistance to the left of the node 3 is R + 2R||2R = 2R, and same for nodes 2
and 1.
By voltage division, the contribution of source v1 is v1(2R/4R) = v1/2.
The contribution of source v2 is v2 (2R/4R)(2R/4R) = v2/4.
R-2R Ladder of OP Amp DAC
The complete Thevenin equivalent is
• Output signals are in phase with those at the input.
• Input resistance is very high (approaching infinity).
• Output resistance is very low.
Voltage follower circuit:
A special case of noninverting circuit is voltage follower circuit.
Here, Rf = 0, and R1 = ∞ (open circuit) . The current gain is
Voltage follower circuit:
A special case of noninverting circuit is voltage follower circuit.
Here, Rf = 0, and R1 = ∞ (open circuit) . The current gain is
Combining these equations and simplifying yields
Differential Amplifier
If we design the network so that RF /R1 = R3/R2, the coefficient of vcm goes to zero, the
common mode signal is rejected, the output is
Differential Amplifier
If we design the network so that RF /R1 = R3/R2, the coefficient of vcm goes to zero, the
common mode signal is rejected, the output is