OPERATIONAL

AMPLIFIER
 An operational amplifier (or an op-amp) is an integrated
circuit (IC) that operates as a voltage amplifier. An op-amp is
very high gain, very high input impedance, very low output
impedance differential amplifier.

 The term “Operational Amplifier” (Op Amp) was originally

the name of a circuit used for carrying out mathematical
operations, such as summation, Differential, differentiation,
integration etc.

 More recently it is used for many functions besides

mathematical operations.
(a) Schematic symbol for op amp; (b) equivalent circuit of op amp
Block diagram of an Op-amp.
A majority of commercially available Op Amps employ four-
stage structure as shown below:

 The first stage is a differential amplifier with a double-

ended output: this provides high input resistance, high
gain for difference signals, and rejection of signals
common to both terminals.

 The second stage is single output differential amplifier

that provides more gain.
 The third stage is an emitter follower, a buffer to provide
low output resistance and isolation of the amplifier from
the load.

 The last stage is combination of level shifter and a driver

stage. The level shifting corrects for any dc offsets that
have been introduced by the bias network. The driver is a
power amplifier to provide larger output current with a
low output resistance.
 This action is called common-mode rejection.
 Its importance lies in the situation where an unwanted signal
appears commonly on both op-amp inputs.
 Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted signal will not
appear on the output and distort the desired signal.
 Common-mode signals (noise) generally are the result of the
pick-up of radiated energy on the input lines, from adjacent
lines, the 60 Hz power line, or other sources.
Note: Ac should be as minimum as possible because Op-amp is Differential
amplifier by default. For ideal op-amp, the value of common mode gain
should be zero.
For Example: Calculate the CMRR for the circuit measurements
Importance of CMRR:-
 The CMRR is the ability of a DA to reject the common-mode
signals.

 The larger the CMRR, the better the DA is at eliminating

common-mode signals.

 It should be clear that the desired operation will have Ad very

large with Ac very small (ideally zero).

 Ideally, the value of the CMRR is infinite. Practically, the

larger the value of CMRR, the better the circuit operation.
Concept of Virtual Ground:-
 The concept of a virtual ground is based on an ideal op amp.
 When an op-amp is ideal, it has infinite open-loop voltage gain
and infinite input resistance. Because of this,
1. Since Rin is infinite, i2 is zero.
2. Since AVOL is infinite, v2 is zero
Based on the virtual ground concept:

Voltage at node 1 (inverting) = voltage at node 2 (non-

inverting)

KCL at node 1:
(Vin – 0) / Rin = (0 – Vout) / Rf

Vin / Rin = - Vout / Rf

Based on the virtual ground concept:

Voltage at node 1 (inverting) = voltage at node 2 (non-

inverting)
KCL at node 1:

Vin  0 Vin  Vout

 0
R2 Rf
 R f  R2  Vout
Vin  
 R2 R f  R f
Vout  R f 
 Rf   Gain   1  
Vout  Vin 1  Vin  R2 

 R2 
Summing Amplifier:-
Differential Amplifier:-
The Integrator Amplifier:-
The Differentiator Amplifier:-
Problems:-
Slew Rate:-
The maximum rate of change of output voltage (dv0/dt), for all
possible value of an input voltage (instantaneously changed
from a small value to large value).

dV0
Slew Rate  volt/μSec
dt max

Vm 2 f
Slew Rate  6
Volt [in terms of volts ]
10
[Note: Vm is the from output]

The higher the slew rate, the faster the Op Amp. The slew rate of
741 Op Amp is 0.5 V/sec at unity gain.
Unity Gain or Voltage follower:-
The voltage follower allows us to move from one circuit to another and
maintain the voltage level. It preserves the voltage source signal. This is why
it’s also called a buffer or isolation amplifier.
Q. For an op-amp having a slew rate of SR = 2
V/us, what is the maximum closed-loop voltage
gain that can be used when the input signal varies
by 0.5 V in 10 us?
Ans:-
Ans:- 1.04 x106 rad/s
Q. What is the range of the voltage-gain adjustment
in the circuit of Fig.
Q. What range of output voltage is developed in the
circuit of Fig.
Q. Calculate the output voltages V and V3 in the
circuit of Fig.