3) OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER BASICS

 Op-Amp Introduction

» Definition

It is a direct-coupled high gain device usually consisting of one or more differential

amplifiers, amplifying AC and DC signals.

-With the addition of suitable external feedback components, it can be used for variety
of applications, such as: active filters, oscillators, comparators, regulators, amplifiers
and others.

» Why it is called as an Operational-Amplifier?

It was used in analog computers to perform a variety of mathematical operations such

as: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, integration, differentiation, etc.

» Block diagram of representation of a typical op-amp

» Explanation of Block diagram

a) Stage-1

-The input stage generally provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier.

-It also establishes the input resistance of the op-amp.

b) Stage-2

-The intermediate stage is usually another differential amplifier which is driven

by the output of the first stage.

-Because direct coupling is used,the DC voltage at the output of the intermediate

stage is well above ground potential.

c) Stage-3

-In this stage, the level translator(shifting) circuit is used after the intermediate
stage to shift the DC level at the output of the intermediate stage downward to
zero volts w.r.t. ground.

d) Stage-4

-The final stage i.e. output stage increases the output voltage swing and raises the
current supplying capability of the op-amp.

-A well designed output stage also provides low output resistance.

» Op-Amp(µA741) Symbol and Terminals

» Op-Amp Power Supply Requirement

-The power supply required for the operation of the op-amp is dual. It’s +15 & -15.
 Integrated Circuits

» What do you mean by integrated circuits (IC)?

It means that all the components in the circuit are fabricated on the same “chip”.

» Types of IC’s

1) Digital IC

-They are complete functioning Logic networks that are equivalent of basic
transistor logic circuits.

-It is a complete predesigned package.

Examples- Gates, counters, multiplexers, demultiplexers, shift registers.

2) Analog IC

-They are complete functioning of discrete transistor networks.

-They often require additional external components for operation.

Examples- Amplifiers, Filters, frequency multipliers and modulators.

 Op-Amp IC µA-741

The manufacturers of op-amp IC µA-741 are given in following table:

 Op-Amp package Types

There are 3 basic types of linear IC packages

1) Flat pack

2) Metal can Or Transistor pack

3) Dual-in-line package (DIP)

» Temperature Ranges

All IC’s manufactured into one of the 3 basic temperature grades:

1) Military Temp. Range -: -55° to +125°C OR -55° to +85°C

2) Industrial Temp. Range -: -20° to +85°C OR -40° to +85°C

3) Commercial Temp. Range -: 0° to +70° C OR 0° to +75 °C

» How to order an op-amp for project?

For ordering an op-amp we have to provide following information must be specified

to vendor:

1) Device type

2) Package type

3) Temperature range
 Pin-Diagram of Op-Amp IC µA-741

Pins Description

1 and 5 These both are offset null pins, used to null the output voltage.

It is an inverting input. It is used to obtain the output voltage which is

2
180° out of phase with input

It is a non-inverting input. It is used to obtain the output voltage which

3
is in phase with input

It is an output terminal. It is used to obtain the output voltage w.r.t.

6
Input voltage.

7 It is a positive supply terminal. It is +15V for commercial op-amp.

4 It is a negative supply terminal. It is -15V for commercial op-amp.

It is a dummy pin and no connection is to be made to this pin externally.

8
It is only used for mounting purpose.

 How to obtain zero output in op-amp µA741?

 -Use the pins 1 and 5, which are offset nulls.

-We have to connect the potentiometer between pin 1 and 5, by varying the wiper of
potentiometer the offset voltage can be reduced to zero volts.

 Ideal Op-amp OR Ideal Differential Amplifier

» Definition

It is basically an amplifier which amplifies the difference between the 2 input signals.

» Differential Gain(Ad)
 -From the equation-(1), we can write,

Vo = Ad (V1-V2) Where, Ad=Differential Gain

-The difference between the two inputs (V1-V2) is called as difference voltage and
denoted as Vd.

Vo = Ad Vd

-Hence, the Differential Gain can be expressed as:

Ad = Vo / Vd

-The Ad is expressed in decibel as:

Ad=20Log (Ad) dB

 Common-Mode configuration of an Op-Amp

When the same voltage is applied to both input terminals, the voltage is called as
common-mode voltage and op-amp is said to be operating in common-mode
configuration.

» Common Mode Gain(Ac)

 -If we apply 2 input voltages which are equal in all the respects to the differential
amplifier i.e.V1=V2

Then, ideally the output voltage Vo= (V1-V2) Ad must be zero.

-The output voltage of “Practical differential amplifier” not only depends on the
difference voltage but also depends on the average common level of the 2 inputs.

An average level of the 2 input signals is called “Common mode signal”, denoted as
Vc.

Vc = (V1 + V2) / 2

-Practically, the differential amplifier produces the output voltage proportional to

such common mode signal.

Vo = Ac Vc Where, Ac=Common mode gain

-So, The total output of any differential amplifier can be expressed as:

Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc

» Conclusion

1) For an Ideal differential amplifier, the differential gain Ad must be infinite, while
the common mode gain Ac must be zero.

2) But due to mismatch in the internal circuitry, there is some output available for
V1=V2 and gain Ac is not practically zero.

 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

» Definition

The ability of differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is expressed as by

a ratio called CMRR, denoted as CMRR OR ρ.

CMRR = ρ = l Ad/Ac l Where, Ad=differential gain & Ac=common voltage gain

 -Ideally, the common mode voltage gain is zero; hence the ideal value of CMRR is
infinite.

-For Practical differential amplifier, Ad is very large and Ac is small, hence the value
of CMRR is also very large.

-Many times the CMRR is also expressed in dB, as

CMRR=20 log l Ad/Ac l dB

 Equivalent Circuit of an Op-Amp

The following is an equivalent circuit of “ideal” as well as “practical” op-amp which

helps us to derive the different characteristics and values of an op-amp.
» Characteristics of Ideal and Practical Op-amp

» Table of characteristics of op-amp

 Configuration of an op-amp

-The configuration of an op-amp is mainly categorized into 2 parts.

Configuration

Closed Loop Open Loop

 Closed loop configuration of an Op-amp

» Definition

The closed loop indicates that, there is connection exist between the output and
input terminals.

» How to achieve Closed Loop in op-amp circuit?

This is possible using feedback. The feedback allows feed some part of output to the
input.

» What are the advantages to use negative feedback in op-amp circuit?

-It helps to control gain and useful in linear applications.

-The output of an op-amp is not driven into saturation.

-It gives maximum bandwidth.

-It gives un-distorted output.

-It reduces the effect of variation in temperature on the output of op-amp.

 Open Loop Configuration of an op-amp

» What do you mean by Open Loop?

The open loop indicates that, there is no connection either direct Or via other
network exists between the output and input terminals.

- In open loop configuration, the op-amp simply functions as a high- gain amplifier.

» What are the Disadvantages of open loop configuration of an op-amp?

-Because of high gain, only the smaller signals having low frequency may be
amplified accurately without distortion.

-Open loop Voltage gain of the op-amp is not a constant voltage gain varies with
changes in temperature and power supply. This makes op-amp unsuitable for many
linear applications.

-Bandwidth of most open loop op-amps is negligibly small or almost zero therefore
op-amp is impractical in ac applications.

» Practical op-amp saturation details

 -The gain is very large in open-loop condition, hence

1) When V1 > V2 then,

Vo = +Vsat (Positive saturation voltage)

2) When V1 < V2 then,

Vo = -Vsat (Negative saturation voltage)

-Thus very small noise voltage present at the input also gets amplified due to its
high open loop gain and op-amp gets saturated.

-It can be seen from the figure only for small range of input signal (from point a and
b), it behaves linearly. This range is very small and practically due to high open loop
gain, op-amp either shows +Vsat or –Vsat level.

 Realistic Simplifying Assumptions

» What is the need to make assumptions in op-amp?

-To understand the operation of circuits with feedback.

-To obtain the output expressions in variety of linear applications.

1) Zero Input Current

-The current drawn by the either of the input terminals (Inverting and Non-
inverting) is zero.

-In practice, the current drawn by the input terminals is very small, of the order µA
Or nA. Hence the assumption of the zero input current is realistic.

2) Virtual Ground

-It is an op-amp circuit in which inverting input terminal is grounded and as per
the input difference voltage (V1=V2),the non-inverting input terminal is also
considered as virtually grounded.
» Derivation

-We have the eqn. of o/p voltage of an ideal op-amp

Vo = Ad Vd

-Which can be written as,

Vd = Vo / Ad

-Since, Ad is very large (Ideally ∞)

Vd ≅ 0

-Hence, V1-V2=0

∴ V1=V2

» Circuit diagram
» Explanation of Circuit diagram

-In this figure, the inverting input terminal is grounded and the input signal is
applied to the non-inverting terminal.

-As per the equation V2=V1, the difference input voltage is ideally zero.i.e.the
voltage at the inverting input terminal is approximately equal to voltage at the non-
inverting input terminal.

-In other words, the inverting terminal voltage V2 is ground voltage. So, the voltage
of non-inverting input terminal is also considered as ground voltage or zero voltage.
But in reality there is no physical connection of non-inverting input terminal. This is
the principle of virtual ground and non-inverting input terminal is said to be virtual
ground.

-This concept is extremely useful in the analysis of closed loop configuration of an

op-amp.

 Voltage Follower circuit of an op-amp

» Definition

It is the op-amp circuit in which output voltage follows input voltage.

» Circuit diagram
» Derivation

-The node B is at potential Vin. Due to the concept of virtual ground, Node A is also
at same potential.

∴ VA = VB = Vin -------- (1) --------

-The node A is directly connected to output terminal.

Vo = VA --------- (2) -------

-Equating the eqn.(1) and (2),we can write,

Vo = Vin

-This circuit is also called as “Source Follower” or “isolation amplifier”.

 Types of an op-amp

There are mainly two types of an op-amp.

1) Inverting Amplifier

2) Non-Inverting Amplifier

The details of both amplifiers are as follows:

1) Inverting Amplifier

» Definition

It is the amplifier which provides a phase shift of 180° between input and
output.
» Circuit diagram

» Derivation for Closed Loop Gain (Vo / Vin)

-As node B is grounded, node A is also at ground potential. So, as per the
concept of Virtual Ground,

VB = VA = 0

-Now, from the Input side, considering the direction of current I,

We can write,

I = ( Vin – VA) / R1

I = Vin / R1 ---------------- (1) ---------------

-Now, from the output side, considering the direction of current I,

We can write,

I = (VA - Vo) / Rf
 -Therefore, I = -Vo / Rf ---------------- (2) ---------------

-The entire current I passes through Rf as op-amp input current is 0.

Equating eqn. (1) and (2) we get,

- Vo / Rf = Vin / R1

Vo / Vin = - Rf / R1 ---------------- (3) ---------------

» Conclusion

The Rf / R1 is the gain of the amplifier, while negative sign indicates that the
polarity of output is opposite to that of input. Hence, it is called as “Inverting
Amplifier”.

» Waveform

2) Non-Inverting Amplifier

» Definition

It is the amplifier which provides a phase shift of 180° between input and
output.
» Circuit diagram

» Derivation for Closed Loop Gain (Vo / Vin)

-The node B is at potential Vin, hence the potential of point A is same as B which
is Vin.

∴ VA = VB = Vin --------------- (1) ---------------

-From the outside we can write,

I = (Vo – VA) / Rf (……… Applying Ohm’s law….)

I = (Vo – Vin) / Rf --------------- (2) ---------------

-At the inverting input terminal

I = (VA – 0) / R1

∴ I = Vin / R1 --------------- (3) ---------------

 -The entire current passes through R1 as input current of an op-amp is zero.

By equating the equations (2) and (3)

(Vo – Vin) / Vin = Vin / R1

∴ Vo / Rf = (Vin / Rf) + (Vin / R1)

∴ Vo / Rf = Vin [(R1+Rf) / R1Rf]

∴ Vo / Vin = (R1 + Rf) Rf / R1Rf

= R1 + Rf / R1

∴ Vo / Vin = 1+ Rf / R1

» Conclusion

The positive sign indicates that there is no phase shift between input and output.

» Waveform
 Summer Or Adder circuit of an op-amp

» Definition

It is the circuit which gives the addition of the applied signals at the output.

» How it is possible to apply more than one input signals to the inputs of an op-
amp?

It is because of the input impedance of an op-amp is extremely large.

» Types of Op-amp Summer Circuit

1) Inverting Summer Circuit 2) Non-Inverting Summer Circuit

1) Inverting Summer

» Definition

It is the op-amp circuit in which all the input signals to be added is applied to the
inverting input terminal.

» Circuit diagram
» Derivation for output Voltage (Vo)

-As point B is grounded, due to virtual ground concept the node A is also at
virtual ground potential.

∴ VA = VB = 0 ------------- (1) --------------

-Now, from the input side,

I1 = (V1-VA) / R1 = V1 / R1 ------------- (2) --------------

I2 = (V2-VA) / R2 = V2 / R2 ------------- (3) --------------

-The entire current passing through an op-amp is I:

I = I1 + I2 ------------- (4) --------------

-Now, from the output side,

I = (VA-Vo) / Rf

∴ I = - (Vo / Rf) ------------- (5) --------------

-Substituting (5), (2) and (3) in (4),

- (Vo / Rf) = (V1 / R1) + (V2 / R2)

∴ Vo = -[ (Rf/R1) V1 + (Rf/R2) V2 ] --------------(6)--------------

-If the 3 resistances are equal i.e. R1 = R2 = Rf , Then

Vo = - (V1 + V2)

» Conclusion

The negative sign of the sum at the output indicates that it is inverting summer
application.
 1) Non-Inverting Summer

» Definition

It is the op-amp circuit in which all the input signals to be added is applied to the
non-inverting input terminal.

» Circuit diagram

» Derivation for Output Voltage (Vo)

-Let the VB = Voltage of node B, VA = Voltage of node A. Now the node A is at same
potential as that of B.

∴ VA = VB -------------- (1) --------------

-From the input side,

I1 = (V1 – VB) / R1 and I1 = (V1 – VB) / R1 -------------- (2) --------------

 -But as the input current of an op-amp is zero,

I1 + I2 =0 -------------- (3) --------------

∴ (V1 – VB) / R1 + (V2 – VB) / R2 = 0

∴ (V1 / R1) + (V2 / R2) = VB [ 1 / R1 + 1 / R2]

∴ VB = (R2 V1 + R1 V2) / (R1 + R2) -------------- (4) --------------

-Now at node A,

I = VA / R = VB / R As VB = VA -------------- (5) --------------

& I = (Vo – VA) / Rf = (Vo – VB) / Rf -------------- (6) --------------

-Equating the two equations (5) and (6),

∴ VB / R = (Vo – VB) / Rf

∴ Vo / Rf = VB [1 / R + 1 / Rf]

-Multiplying both sides by Rf, We get equation,

Vo = VB * ([R + Rf] / R) -------------- (7) --------------

-Substituting equations (4) in (7) we get,

Vo = ((R2 V1 + R1 V2) [R + Rf]) / R (R1 + R2)

i.e. Vo = (R2 (R + Rf) / R( R1 + R2)) * V1 + (R1 (R + Rf) / R( R1 + R2)) * V2 ----(8)----

-If R1 = R2 =Rf, we get

Vo = V1 + V2

 Subtractor Or Difference Amplifier

» Definition

It is the op-amp circuit in which subtraction of 2 input voltages is possible.

» Circuit diagram

» Superposition Principle

As per 1st Superposition Principle, When V2=0, the circuit acts an inverting
amplifier, Hence we can write

Vo1 = - (Rf / R1) V1 -------------- (1) -----------

» Circuit diagram of Non-inverting Subtractor

» Derivation for output Voltage (Vo)

-Let the potential of node B is VB. The potential of node A is same as B.

VA = VB

-Applying Voltage divider rule to the input V2 loop,

VB = (Rf / (R2 + Rf)) V2 ……………. (2)………….

-Now, Input current I = VA / R1 = VB / R1 ...…………. (3)………….

-And, Output current I = (Vo2 - VA ) / Rf

I = (Vo2 - VB) / Rf ...…………. (4)………….

 -Equating the equations (3) and (4),

VB / R1 = (Vo2 - VB) / Rf

∴ Vo2 = ((R1 + Rf) / R1) VB

∴ Vo2 = [1 + (Rf / R1)] VB ...………….(5)………….

-Substituting VB from (2) in (5) we get,

Vo2 = [1 + (Rf / R1)] [Rf /(R2 + Rf)] V2 ...………….(6)………….

-Hence using Superposition principle,

Vo = Vo1 + Vo2

= (- Rf/R1) V1 + [1+ (Rf/R1)] [Rf/(R2 + Rf)] V2 ……..(7)……

-Now, if the resistances are selected as R1 = R2,

Vo = (- Rf/R1 ) V1 + (Rf/R1) V2

Vo = (+ Rf/R1) ( V2 – V1) ……..(8)……

-If R1 = R2 = Rf is selected,

Vo = V2 - V1 .....….(9)……..

» Conclusion

The output voltage is proportional to the difference between the two input
voltages. Thus it acts as Subtractor Or Difference amplifier.

 Op-Amp as-Comparator

» Definition

It is the op-amp circuit in which we are comparing a signal voltage on one input of
an op-amp with a known voltage called reference voltage on other input.
 -In its simplest form, it is nothing more than an open-loop op-amp with two analog
inputs and a single digital output.

» Circuit diagram

» Construction details

-The diodes D1 and D2 protect the op-amp from damage due to excessive input
voltage Vin.

-The resistance R is in series with Vin used to limit the current trough D1 and D2.

-A fixed reference voltage Vref of 1V is applied to the inverting input and other time
varying signal voltage Vin is applied to the non-inverting terminal.

-Because of this arrangement circuit is called as “Non-Inverting Comparator.”

» Conditions for Output Voltage (Vo)

 1) When Vin < Vref,

Vo = -Vsat

And Vo ≅ -VEE

-Because the voltage at the inverting input is higher than that at the non-
inverting input.

2) When Vin > Vref,

Vo = +Vsat

And Vo ≅ +VCC

-Because the voltage at the non-inverting input is higher than that at the
inverting input.

» Transfer Characteristics of Comparator

» Input and Output Waveforms

 -The Vo changes from one saturation level to another whenever Vin ≅ Vref as shown in
figure (b).In short, the comparator is a type of analog-to-digital converter.

-If the Vref is negative w.r.t. ground, with a sinusoidal signal applied to the positive
input, the output waveform will be as shown in figure (c).

» Applications Of Comparator

1) Zero Crossing Detector

-The switching of the Vo from +Vsat to –Vsat Or Vice-Versa occurs when the input
voltage Vin crosses the zero level.

2) Voltage Level Detector

-For desired value of Vref, the voltage level of the Vin can be detected.

3) Window Detector
 -To determine the unknown input between the precise reference thresholds.

4) Schmitt Trigger

5) Digital Interfacing

6) Oscillators

» Characteristics Of Comparator

1) Speed of operation

-As per the change in input, output switches rapidly between saturation levels. It
implies that the bandwidth of comparator is wide.

-In fact, wider the bandwidth, the higher the speed of operation.

2) Accuracy

-The accuracy of the comparator is depends on its voltage gain, CMRR and input
offset voltage.

-Higher the values of Gain, CMRR increase the accuracy of operation of comparator.

3) Compatibility of Output

-The comparator is form of analog to digital converter, its o/p must swing between
the 2 logic levels.

-It is suitable for logic family like-TTL.

 Schmitt Trigger

» Definition

(1)-It is a circuit which converts an irregular shaped waveform to square waveform

or pulse.
 (2)-The comparator circuit is used to avoid unwanted triggering which basically
uses a positive feedback.

» Use of Schmitt Trigger

-The wrong indication of zero crossing due to crossing of noise voltage rather
than zero crossing of input wanted signal is avoided by using Schmitt trigger.

Note-This circuit is also called as Squaring or Regenerative comparator.

» Circuit diagram

» Basic Terms of Schmitt Trigger

1) Upper Threshold Voltage (Vut)

-The input voltage (Vin) triggers (changes the state of) the output voltage (Vo)
every time it exceeds certain voltage levels.
 2) Lower Threshold Voltage (Vlt)

-The input voltage (Vin) triggers (changes the state of) the output voltage (Vo)
every time it bellows certain voltage levels.

» Input and Output Waveforms

» Conditions for Vut and Vlt w.r.t. Output Voltage (Vo)

1) When Vo = +Vsat,

-The voltage across R1 is called the Vut.

-The Vin must be slightly more positive than Vut in order to cause the Vo to
switch from +Vsat to –Vsat.

-So, as long as Vin < Vut, Vo = +Vsat. Then using Voltage-divider rule,
 Vut = (R1 / R1+ R2) (+Vsat) -------------(1)-----------

2) When Vo = -Vsat,

-The voltage across R1 is called the Vlt.

-The Vin must be slightly more negative than Vlt in order to cause the Vo to
switch from -Vsat to +Vsat.

-So, as long as Vin > Vlt, Vo = -Vsat. Then using Voltage-divider rule,

Vlt = (R1 / R1+ R2) (-Vsat) -------------(2)-----------

» Conclusion

-If the threshold voltages Vut and Vlt are made larger than the input noise
voltages, the positive feedback will eliminate the false output transitions.

-The positive feedback will make Vo switch faster between +Vsat and –Vsat.

» Hysteresis

The graph indicates that once the output changes its states it remains there
indefinitely until the input voltage crosses any of the threshold reference voltage
levels. This is called hysteresis of Schmitt trigger.
» Conditions for Hysteresis

-The comparator with positive feedback is said to exhibit hysteresis-a dead band
condition.

-When the Vin > Vut, then

Vo switches from +Vsat to –Vsat.

-When the Vin < Vlt,

Vo switches from -Vsat to +Vsat.

-Then Hysteresis Voltage is:

Vhy = (Vut -Vlt)

= ((R1 / R1+R2) (+Vsat)) – ((R1 / R1+R2) (-Vsat))

Vhy = (R1 / R1+R2) [+Vsat – (-Vsat)]