Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)

Op-amp is basically a multistage amplifier which is uses a number of amplifier stages

interconnected to each other in a complicated manner. The amplifier which could be
configured to perform a variety of operations such as amplification, addition, subtraction,
differentiation and integration. Hence the name is operational amplifier (OP-AMP).
The integrated Op-amp offers all the advantages of monolithic integrated circuits such as small
size, high reliability, reduced cost, less power consumption. IC 741 is the commercially
available op-amp in the form of an IC (integrated circuit) and is extremely popular and used in
a variety of applications.
What is an Op-amp?
A multistage high-gain amplifier integrated in analysis as a separate block.

 The input of an op amp is a differential amplifier therefore has 2 inputs.

 The output is singled ended.
 Typically configured for a dual power supply (+/_V)
Symbol and terminal pin numbering

Basic operation of an op-amp

There are two types of op-amps, depending on how the input is given to the op-amp.
(i) Inverting operation amplifier
Input and output signals 1800 phase shift when the input signal is applied to the inverting (-)
terminal. The voltage gain of the inverting operational amplifier or inverting op amp is, A V=-
Rf/Ri. The output is amplified and inverted.

(ii) Non-inverting operational amplifier

Input and output signals 00 phase shift when the input signal is applied to the Non-
inverting (+) terminal. The output is amplified but not inverted.
Ideal differential amplifier
An ideal differential amplifier is expected to amplify the differential signal present between its
two input signal. It is also the basic stage of an integrated Op-amp with differential input.

The difference between the input signals V1 and V2 is called as the differential signal V d
Differential signal Vd = V1 – V2
Vo = Ad (V1 – V2), Where Ad is called as the differential gain.
The differential gain can be defined as the gain with which the differential amplifier amplifies
the differential signal.
Vo = AdVd
Common mode input signal
A common signal to both the input terminals (i.e. V1=V2=V) is called as common mode signal.
The output voltage produced by an ideal differential amplifier is zero for the common mode
signal.
Common mode gain
The output voltage of an ideal differential amplifier will be zero if V1=V2=V.
However, equation does not describe a practical differential amplifier. In practice output
voltage Vo of a differential amplifier depends not only on the differential signal ‘V d’ but it also
depends on an average voltage level called “common mode signal Vc”.
Common mode input signal Vc = (V1+V2)/2
The gain with which a practical differential amplifier amplifies the common mode signal (Vc)
is called as the “common mode gain Vc”
Vo = AcVc
The total voltage of a differential amplifier is given by :
Vo = AdVd + AcVc

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

Common mode rejection ration (CMRR) is the ability of a differential amplifier to reject the
common mode signal successfully. CMRR is defined as the ratio of differential gain Ad and
common mode gain Ac. It is denoted by letter “ρ”
CMRR = ρ = Ad / Ac
Ideally CMRR should be infinite and practically it should be as high as possible.

Important characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp

1. Infinite voltage gain- open loop gain of an ideal OP-AMP is denoted by Av. It is the
differential voltage gain and its value for an ideal OP-AMP is infinite.
2. Infinite input resistance or impedance- the input resistance or impedance of an ideal
OP-amp is infinite. Due to infinite input resistance or impedance, almost any source
can drive it.
3. Zero output resistance or impedance- the output resistance or impedance of an ideal
OP-amp is zero. Due to this, the ideal Op-amp can handle infinite number of other
devices.
4. Zero offset voltage- in practical Op-amps a small output voltage is present even though
both the inputs V1 and V2 are having a zero value. This voltage is called as the offset
voltage. For ideal Op-amp the offset voltage is zero. That means output voltage is zero
when input voltage is zero.
5. Infinite Bandwidth- Bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequencies over which
all the signal frequencies are amplified almost equally. The bandwidth of an ideal Op-
amp is infinite. So it can amplify any frequency from zero to infinite hertz.
 6. Infinite CMRR- for an Op-amp, the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is defined
as the ratio of differential gain to common mode gain. CMRR is infinite for the ideal Op-
amp. Thus the output voltage corresponding to the common mode noise is zero.
7. Infinite slew rate- the slew rate of an ideal Op-amp is infinite so that the output voltage
changes occur simultaneously with the input voltage changes.

Open loop configuration of OP-AMP

The meaning of open loop operation is that there is absolutely no feedback present from the
output to input.

Close loop configuration of OP-AMP

In the closed loop configuration some kind of “feedback” is introduced in the circuit. A part of
output is returned back or fed back to the input.
Types of feedback:
 Positive feedback or regenerative feedback- if the feedback signal and the original input
signal are in phase with each other then it is called as the positive feedback.
 Negative feedback or degenerative feedback- If the signal is fed back to the input and
the original input signal are 1800 out of phase, then it is called as the negative feedback.
Negative feedback or Degenerative feedback
In the amplifier circuits using Op-amp, a feedback resistor RF is connected between the output
and inverting terminal as shown in figure to introduced a negative feedback.
Op-amp used as a summing amplifier or adder
It is possible to apply more than one input signal to an inverting amplifier. This circuit will
then add all these input signals to produce their addition at the output. Such a circuit will then
be called as an adder or a summing amplifier.
Depending on the polarity or a sign of the output voltage the adder circuits can be classified
into two categories:
1. Inverting adder and
2. Non-inverting adder.
The summing amplifier is an application of the inverting op-amp configuration. The summing
amplifier has two or more inputs and its output voltage is proportional to the negative of the
algebraic sum of its input voltage
Inverting adder or inverting summing amplifier

Examples of summing amplifiers

 Numericals on summing amplifiers (adders)

Solution:
Since R1=R2=R3=Rf
Vout= -(V1+V2+V3)=-(3+1+8)= -12 volts

Solution:
Since R1, R2 and Rf are not equal to each other,
Vout=- (V1/R1 +V2/R2 +V3/R3 ) RF
=-(0.2/1 + 0.5/1) x 10= -7 volts
Solution:
Since R1, R2, R3, R4 and Rf are not equal to each other,
Vout=- (V1/R1 +V2/R2 +V3/R3 +V4/R4) RF
=-(1/100 + 2/100 + 3/100 + 4/100) x 25 = -2.5 Volts

Solution:
Since R1, R2, R3 and Rf are not equal to each other,
Vout=- (V1/R1 +V2/R2 +V3/R3) RF
=-(3/47 + 2/100 + 8/10) x 10 = -8.84 volts