Day 4-02 - Well Testing - 1

Well Testing
Introduction to Well Testing
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Well Testing
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Introduction to Well Testing

Instructional Objectives
1. List 4 objectives of well testing.
2. Define testing variables.
3. Compute compressibility of reservoir systems.
Upon completion of this section, the student should be able to:
1. List 4 major objectives of well testing.
2. Define, give the units for, and specify typical sources

for each of the following variables: net pay thickness, porosity, saturation, viscosity,
formation volume factor, total compressibility, wellbore radius.
3. Be able to compute the total compressibility for different reservoir systems.

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Introduction To Well Testing

Outline
Applications and objectives of well testing
Development of the diffusivity equation
Definitions and sources for data used in well testing

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What Is A Well Test?
A tool for reservoir evaluation and characterization

– Investigates a much larger volume of the reservoir than cores
or logs
– Provides estimate of permeability under in-situ conditions
– Provides estimates of near-wellbore condition
– Provides estimates of distances to boundaries

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How Is A Well Test Conducted?
q=0
A well test is conducted by

• Changing production rate at a well
• Measuring resulting pressure response at the same well or another well
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Well Test Applications
Exploration
Reservoir engineering
Production engineering
• Exploration
Is this zone economic?
How large is this reservoir?
• Reservoir engineering
What is the average reservoir pressure?
How do I describe this reservoir in order to
– estimate reserves?
– forecast future performance?
– optimize production?
• Production engineering
Is this well damaged?
How effective was this stimulation treatment?
Why is this well not performing as well as expected?
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Well Test Objectives
Define reservoir limits

Estimate average drainage area pressure
Characterize reservoir
Diagnose productivity problems
Evaluate stimulation treatment effectiveness
• Define reservoir limits

– Distances to boundaries
– Drainage area
• Estimate average drainage area pressure
• Characterize reservoir
– Permeability
– Skin factor
– Dual porosity or layered behavior
• Diagnose productivity problems
– Permeability
– Skin factor
• Evaluate stimulation treatment effectiveness
– Skin factor
– Fracture conductivity
– Fracture half-length
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Types of Well Tests
Single-Well Multi-Well
Single well tests

Drawdown test –Produce a well at constant rate and measure the pressure response.
Buildup test – Shut in a well that has been producing and measure the pressure
response.
Injection test – Inject fluid into a well at constant rate and measure the pressure
response.
Injection-falloff test – Shut in an injection well and measure the pressure response.
Multi-well tests
Interference test – Produce one well at constant rate and measure the pressure
response at one or more offset wells.
Pulse test – Alternately produce and shut in one well and measure the pressure
response at one or more offset wells.
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Development of the Diffusivity Equation

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The Diffusivity Equation
Describes the flow of

A slightly compressible fluid
Having constant viscosity
In a porous medium
At constant temperature
• Obtained by combining
– Continuity equation
– Equation of state for slightly compressible liquids
– Flow equation - Darcy’s law
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The Continuity Equation
ρv)1
(Aρ ρv)2
(Aρ
& = (Aρv )1 − (Aρv )2

m
The continuity equation is a restatement of the conservation of matter. That is, the rate of
accumulation of fluid within a volume element is given by the rate at which the fluid flows into
the volume minus the rate at which the fluid flows out of the volume.
Nomenclature
A = Cross-sectional area open to flow, ft2
= Rate of accumulation of mass within the volume, lbm/sec
v = Fluid velocity, ft/sec
ρ&
m = Density of fluid, lbm/ft3
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Equation of State for a Slightly Compressible

Liquid
ρ = ρ o e c (p −po )
This equation describes the change in density with pressure for a liquid with small
and constant compressibility.
Nomenclature
c = Compressibility, psi-1
p = Pressure, psi
ρ = Density of fluid, lbm/ft3
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Flow Equation - Darcy’s Law
kA∆p
q=
µL
or, in differential form,
k x ∂p
ux = −
µ ∂x
Nomenclature
A = Cross sectional area open to flow, cm2
k = Permeability, darcies
L = Length of flow path, cm
p = Pressure, atm
∆p = Pressure difference between upstream and
downstream sides, atm
q = Flow rate, cm3/sec
ux = Flow velocity, cm/sec
x = Spatial coordinate, cm
µ = Viscosity, cp
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The Diffusivity Equation
1 ∂  ∂p  φµc t ∂p
r  =
r ∂ r  ∂r  k ∂t
• The diffusivity equation is obtained by combining

- The continuity equation
- The equation of state for a slightly compressible liquid
- Darcy’s law
• Other transient flow equations may be obtained by combining different

equations of state and different flow equations
- Gas flow equation
- Multiphase flow equation
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Data Used in Well Testing

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Formation Volume Factor
Vres
Bo =
Vsurf
• The formation volume factor is the volume of fluid at reservoir conditions

necessary to produce a unit volume of fluid at surface conditions.
• Symbol – Bo, Bg, Bw
• Units – res bbl/STB, res bbl/ Mscf
• Source – Lab measurements, correlations
• Range and typical values
– Oil
• 1 – 2 res bbl/STB, Black oil
• 2 – 4 res bbl/STB, Volatile oil
– Water
• 1 – 1.1 res bbl/STB
– Gas
• 0.5 res bbl/Mscf, at 9000 psi
• 5 res bbl/Mscf, at 680 psi
• 30 res bbl/Mscf, at 115 psi
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Viscosity
v + dv
dy v
F
µ≡
dv
A
dy
• Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow -- specifically, it is the ratio of the

shear stress to the resulting rate of strain within a fluid.
• Symbols
µo, µg, µw
• Units – cp
• Range and typical values

- 0.25 – 10,000 cp, Black oil
- 0.5 – 1.0 cp, Water
- 0.012 – 0.035 cp, Gas
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Fluid Compressibility
1 ∂Vo ∂ ln(Vo )
co ≡ − =−
Vo ∂p ∂p
• Compressibility is the fractional change in volume due to a unit change in

pressure.
• Symbol – co, cg, cw
• Units – psi-1, microsips (1 microsip = 1x10-6 psi-1)
Typical Values
• Oil
– 15x10-6 psi-1, undersaturated oil
– 180x10-6 psi-1, saturated oil
• Water
– 4x10-6 psi-1
• Gas
– 1/p, Ideal gas
– 60x10-6 psi-1, at 9000 psi
– 1.5x10-3 psi-1, at 680 psi
– 9x10-3 psi-1, at 115 psi
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Porosity
• Porosity is the ratio of volume of pore space to bulk volume of rock.
• Symbol - φ
• Units
– Equations - fraction
– Reports - % (or fraction)
• Source
– Logs, cores
• Range or Typical Value

– 30%, unconsolidated well-sorted sandstone
– 20%, clean, well-sorted consolidated sandstone
– 8%, low permeability reservoir rock
– 0.5%, natural fracture porosity
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Permeability
qµL
k=
A∆p
• Permeability is the measure of capacity of rock to transmit fluid.
• Symbol
– k
• Units
– Darcy or millidarcy (md or mD)
• Source
– Well tests, core analysis
• Range
– 0.001 md - 10,000 md
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Pore Compressibility
1 ∂φ ∂ ln(φ )
cf ≡ =
φ ∂p ∂p
• Pore volume compressibility is the fractional change in porosity due to unit

change in pressure.
• Symbol – cf
• Units – psi-1, microsips
• Source – Lab measurement, correlation, guess

– 4x10-6 psi-1, well-consolidated sandstone
– 30x10-6 psi-1, unconsolidated sandstone
– 4 to 50 x 10-6 psi-1 consolidated limestones
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Net Pay Thickness
Shale
h1 Sand
h2
h3
h = h1 + h2 + h3
• The net pay thickness is the total thickness of all productive layers in
communication with the well.
– NOTE: Also includes any rock that has sufficient vertical permeability
to allow fluid to move to a layer from which it may be produced.
• Symbol – h
• Units – ft
• Source – logs
– May be as small as 5 ft or even less
– May be as large as 1,000 ft or more

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Saturations
H2O
• Saturation is the fraction of pore volume occupied by a particular fluid.
• Symbol – So, Sw, Sg
• Units – fraction or %
• Source – logs

– 15 to 25% – connate water saturation in well-sorted, coarse
sandstones
– 40 to 60% – connate water saturation in poorly sorted, fine-grained,
shaly, low-permeability reservoir rock
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Wellbore Radius
rw
• Wellbore radius is the size of wellbore.
• Symbol
– rw
• Units
– feet
• Source
– Bit diameter/2
– Caliper log

– 2 to 8 in.
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Total Compressibility
c t = c f + S o c o + S w c w + S gc g
• The total compressibility is the sum of pore compressibility and saturation

weighted fluid compressibilities.
• Symbol – ct
• Units
– psi-1, microsips
• Source
– Calculated

– See exercises
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Exercise 1
List 4 Objectives of Well Testing
List 4 objectives of well testing. List as many as possible without referring to the
notes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Exercise 2
Define Variables Used In Well Testing
Define, give the units for, and name a common source for each of the following
variables used in well testing. Complete as much of this exercise as possible before
referring to the notes.
1. Porosity
2. Water saturation
3. Total compressibility
4. Oil compressibility
5. Formation volume factor
6. Viscosity
7. Wellbore radius
8. Net pay thickness
9. Permeability
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Exercise 3
Calculate Compressibility for Undersaturated Oil Reservoir
Calculate total compressibility for the following situation. Assume solution gas/oil ratios
do not include stock tank vent gas.
Undersaturated oil reservoir (above the bubblepoint)
Sw = 17%, TDS = 18 wt %, oil gravity = 27°API,
Rso = 530 scf/STB, gas gravity = 0.85, Tf = 185°F,
p = 3500 psi, cf = 3.6×10-6 psi-1
Tsep = 75°F, psep = 115 psia
From fluid properties correlations,
pb = 2803 psi
co = 1.158 x 10-5 psi-1
cw = 2.277 x 10-5 psi-1

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Exercise 3
Calculate Compressibility for Undersaturated Oil Reservoir
Solution
ct = cf + So co + Sw cw + Sg cg
cf = 3.6 x 10-6 psi-1
Sw = 0.17
Sg = 0
So = 1 - Sw - Sg = 1 - 0.17 - 0.0 = 0.83

pb = 2803 psi
co = 1.158 x 10-5
cw = 2.277 x 10-6
= 3.6 x 10-6 + (0.83) (1.158 x 10-5)
+ (0.17) (2.277 x 10-6) + (0) (?)
= 1.36 x 10-5 psi-1
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Exercise 4
Calculate Compressibility for Saturated Oil Reservoir
Calculate total compressibility for the following situation. Assume solution gas/oil
ratios do not include stock tank vent gas.
Saturated oil reservoir (below the original bubblepoint)
Sw = 17%, Sg = 5%, TDS = 18 wt %, oil gravity = 27°API,
p = 2000 psi, cf = 3.6×10-6 psi-1
Tsep = 75°F, psep = 115 psia
pb = 2803 psi
co = 1.429 x 10-4 psi-1
cg = 5.251 x 1-4 psi-1
cw = 4.995 x 10-6 psi-1

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Exercise 4
Calculate Compressibility for Saturated Oil Reservoir
Solution
cf = 3.6 x 10-6 psi-1
Sw = 0.17
Sg = 0.05
So = 1 - 0.17 - 0.05 = 0.78

pb = 2803 psi
co = 1.429 x 10-4 psi-1
cg = 5.251 x 10-4 psi-1
cw = 4.995 x 10-6 psi-1
= 3.6 x 10-6 + (0.78) (1.429 x 10-4) + (0.17) (4.995 x 10-6)
+ (0.05) (5.251 x 10-4 )
= 1.42 x 10-4 psi-1
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Exercise 5
Calculate Compressibility for Low-Pressure, High-Permeability Gas Reservoir
Calculate total compressibility for the following situation. Assume a dry gas.
Low-pressure, high-permeability gas reservoir
Sw = 20%, gas gravity = 0.74, Tf = 125°F, p = 125 psi,
cf = 3.6×10-6 psi-1, cw = 4 x 10-6 psi [Tf is outside range of

correlations]
cg = 8.144 x 10-3 psi-1
cw = 4x10-6 psi-1
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Exercise 5
Calculate Compressibility for Low-Pressure, High-Permeability Gas Reservoir
Solution
ct = cf + So co + Sg cg + Sw cw
cf = 3.6 x 10-6 psi-1
Sw = 0.2
Sg = 0
Sg = 1 - Sw - So = 1 - 0.2 - 0 = 0.8

cg = 8.144 x 10-3 psi-1
cw = 4 x 10-6 psi-1
= 3.6 x 10-6 + (0) ( ? ) + (0.8) (8.144 x 10-3)
+ (0.2) (4 x 10-6)
= 6.52 x 10-3 psi-1
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Exercise 6
Calculate Compressibility for High-Pressure, Low-Permeability Gas Reservoir
Calculate total compressibility for the following situation. Assume a dry gas.
High pressure, low permeability gas reservoir
Sw = 35%, TDS = 22 wt %, gas gravity = 0.67, Tf = 270°F,
p = 5,000 psi, cf = 20×10-6 psi-1
cg = 1.447 x 10-4 psi-1
cw = 3.512 x10-6 psi-1

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Exercise 6
Calculate Compressibility for High-Pressure, Low-Permeability Gas Reservoir
Solution
cf = 2.0 x 10-5 psi-1
So = 0
Sw = 0.35
Sg = 1 - So - Sw = 1 - 0 - 0.35 = 0.65

cg = 1.447 x 10-4 psi-1
cw = 3.512 x 10-6 psi-1
= 2.0 x 10-5 + (0) ( ? ) + (0.65) (1.447 x 10-4)
+(0.35) (3.512 x 10-6)
= 1.15 x 10-4 psi-1
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Radial Flow and

Radius of Investigation

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Radial Flow and

Radius of Investigation
1. Calculate radius of investigation or time to reach it.
2. Describe the effects of reservoir properties on radius of
investigation.
1. Given formation and fluid properties, be able to calculate the radius of investigation
achieved at a given time or the time necessary to reach a given radius of investigation.
2. Describe, without looking at the equation, how each of the following parameters affects
the time required to reach a given radius of investigation: permeability, compressibility,
viscosity, porosity, net pay thickness, flow rate.
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Radial Flow Reservoir Model
Bulk
formation
h
rw
• Assumptions
– Single-phase liquid with constant µ, c, B
– Formation with constant φ, h
– Well completed over entire sand thickness
– Infinite reservoir containing only one well
– Uniform pressure in reservoir prior to production
– Constant production rate q beginning at time t=0
– Homogeneous reservoir
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Ei-Function Solution
qBµ  948φµc tr 2 
p = pi + 70.6 Ei − 
kh  kt 

−u
∞e
− Ei (− x ) ≡ ∫x du
u
The Ei-function solution to the diffusivity equation assumes line source well (finite
size of wellbore can be neglected).
This solution is valid only for r > rw .
It predicts the pressure response in the reservoir as a function of both time t and
distance from the center of the wellbore r.
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Ei-Function Graph
5
-Ei(-x)
4
C
3
A
2 Ei-function
B
1 Log
approximation
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
x
The argument of the Ei-function, x, is given by:
948 φ µ c t r 2
x=
kt
Short times or large distances ⇒ large x
Long times or short distances ⇒ small x
For short times, A, pressure response predicted by the Ei-function is negligible.

For long times, B, pressure response may be calculated using the logarithmic
approximation to the Ei-function.
For intermediate times, C, the full Ei-function must be used to calculate the pressure
response.
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Short-Time Approximation for

p ≅ pi
948 φµct r 2
Applies when > 10
kt
At any given point in the reservoir, at sufficiently early times, the pressure response
is essentially negligible.
This approximation applies whenever
948 φ µ c t r 2
> 10 .
kt
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Long-Time Approximation to
qBµ  1688 φ µ ct r 2 
p ≅ pi + 162.6 log10  

kh  kt 
948 φµct r 2
Applies when < 0.01
kt
At any given point in the reservoir, at sufficiently late times, the pressure response
is approximately logarithmic in time.
This approximation applies whenever
.
948φµc tr 2
< 0.01
kt
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Pressure Profile During Drawdown

2000
t=0
1800
t = 0.01 hrs
Pressure, psi
1600
t = 1 hr
1400
t = 100 hrs t = 10000 hrs

1200
1000
1 10 100 1000 10000
Distance from center of wellbore, ft
Consider the pressure profile in an infinite-acting reservoir during drawdown.

At t = 0 the pressure is uniform throughout the reservoir.
At t = 0.01 hours only a small region within 10 ft of the wellbore has shown the
effects of the transient.
Sometime later, at t =1 hour, the pressure transient has moved into a larger region,
perhaps 100 ft from the wellbore.
Still later, at t =100 hours, the pressure transient has moved even further from the
wellbore.
As production continues, the pressure transient continues to move through the
reservoir until it has reached all of the boundaries of the reservoir.
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Pressure Profile During Buildup

2000
1800 t = 10000 hrs
t = 100 hrs
Pressure, psi
1600
1400
t = 1 hr
1200
t = 0.01 hrs
t=0
1000
1 10 100 1000 10000

Consider what happens when we shut in the well from the previous slide for a
buildup.
At the instant of shutin, ∆t=0, the pressure begins to build up in the well. However,
this rise in pressure does not affect the entire reservoir at once.
At ∆t = 0.01 hours, the pressure buildup has affected only that part of the reservoir
within about 10 ft of the wellbore. A pressure gradient still exists in the bulk of the
reservoir. This means that fluid continues to flow in most of the reservoir, even
during buildup.
At ∆t =1 hour, the pressure has built up in a larger area, within about 100 ft of the
wellbore.
As the shutin period continues, the region within which the pressure has built up
grows until the entire reservoir is at uniform pressure.
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Radius of Investigation Equations
Radius of investigation for a given time t:
kt
ri =
948φµc t
Time required to reach a given radius of investigation ri:

948φµc tri2
t=
k
• Assumptions
– Radial flow
– Infinite-acting reservoir
– Homogeneous reservoir
• Effect of reservoir properties

– Increasing porosity, viscosity, or total compressibility increases the
time required to reach a given radius of investigation.
– Increasing permeability decreases the time required to reach a given
radius of investigation.
– Changing the rate has no effect on the radius of investigation.
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Exercise 1
Factors That Affect Radius of Investigation
Without looking at the notes, choose the correct response to complete each statement. Check your answers
by referring to the radius of investigation equation.
A) increases
B) decreases
C) does not affect
1. Increasing viscosity __________________ the radius of investigation.
2. Increasing permeability __________________ the radius of investigation.
3. Increasing formation volume factor __________________ the radius of

investigation.
4. Increasing test time __________________ the radius of investigation.
5. Increasing production rate __________________ the radius of

investigation.
6. Increasing net pay thickness __________________ the radius of

investigation.
7. Increasing porosity __________________ the radius of investigation.
8. Increasing total compressibility __________________ the radius of

investigation.
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Exercise 1
Factors That Affect Radius of Investigation
Solution
Without looking at the notes, choose the correct response to complete each statement. Check your answers
by referring to the radius of investigation equation.
A) increases
B) decreases
C) does not affect
1. Increasing viscosity __________________ the radius of investigation.
2. Increasing permeability __________________ the radius of investigation.
3. Increasing formation volume factordecreases

__________________ the radius of
investigation.
4. increases
Increasing test time __________________ the radius of investigation.
5. Increasing production rate __________________ thedoes not

radius of affect
investigation.
6. Increasing net pay thickness __________________ the radius of

investigation. increases
7. does
Increasing porosity __________________ not ofaffect
the radius investigation.
8. Increasing total compressibility __________________ the radius of

investigation.
does not affect
decreases
decreases
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Exercise 2
Calculate Radius of Investigation for an
Undersaturated Oil Reservoir
Calculate the time required to reach a radius of investigation of 745 feet for the following
situation. Use the data and results from Exercise 3 in the previous section, with the following
additional information.
Undersaturated oil reservoir (above the bubblepoint)
Sw = 17%, TDS = 18 wt %, oil gravity = 27°API, Rso = 530 scf/STB,
gas gravity = 0.85, Tf = 185°F, p = 3500 psi, cf = 3.6×10-6 psi-1 ,
h = 100 ft, q = 75 STB/D, φ = 17%, Tsep = 75°F, psep = 115 psia,
k = 250 md
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Exercise 2
Calculate Radius of Investigation for an Undersaturated Oil
Reservoir
Solution
948 φ µ c t ri2
φt = =
k0.17
µ = 1.06 cp
ct = 1.36 x 10-5 psi-1 (from Ex. 3, previous section)
ri = 745 ft
k = 250 md
948 φ µ c t ri2
t=
k
(948 ) (0.17 ) (1.06 ) (1.36 x10 − 5 ) (745 )2

=
250
= 5.1 hrs
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Exercise 3
Calculate Radius of Investigation for a
Saturated Oil Reservoir
Calculate the time required to reach a radius of investigation of 745 feet for the following
situation. Use the data and results from Exercise 4 in the previous section, with the
following additional information.
Saturated oil reservoir (below the original bubblepoint)
Sw = 17%, Sg = 5%, TDS = 18 wt %, oil gravity = 27°API,
p = 2,000 psi, cf = 3.6×10-6 psi-1 , h = 100 ft, q = 75 STB/D,
φ = 17%, Tsep = 75°F, psep = 115 psia, k = 250 md, kro = 0.8
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Exercise 3
Saturated Oil Reservoir
Solution
948 φ µ c t ri2
t=
φ = k 0.17
µ = 1.185 cp
ct = 1.42 x 10-4, from Ex. 4, previous section
ri = 745 ft
kro = 0.8
k = 250 md
keff = k kro = (250) (0.8) = 200 md
948 φ µ c t ri2
t=
k
(948 ) (0.17 ) (1.185 ) (1.42 x10 − 4 ) (745 )2
=
200
= 75 hrs
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Exercise 4
Low-Pressure, High-Permeability Gas Reservoir
Calculate the time required to reach a radius of investigation of 745 feet for the
following situation. Use the data and results from Exercise 5 in the previous
section, with the following additional information.
Low-pressure, high-permeability gas reservoir
Sw = 20%, gas gravity = 0.74, Tf = 125°F, p = 125 psi,
cf = 3.6×10-6 psi-1, h = 17 ft, q = 4,500 Mcf/D, φ = 12%,
cw = 4.0 x 10-6 psi-1, k = 100 md
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Exercise 4
Low-Pressure, High-Permeability Gas Reservoir
Solution
948 φ µ c t ri2
φt ==
k0.12
µ = 0.01151 cp
ct = 6.52 x 10-3 psi-1, from Ex. 5, previous section
ri = 745 ft
k = 100 md
948 φ µ c t ri2
t=
k
(948 ) (0.12 ) (0.01151) (6.52 x10−3 ) (745 )2
=
100
= 47 hrs
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Exercise 5
High-Pressure, Low-Permeability Gas Reservoir
Calculate the time required to reach a radius of investigation of 745 feet for the
following situation. Use the data and results from Exercise 5 in the previous section,
with the following additional information.
High-pressure, low-permeability gas reservoir
Sw = 35%, TDS = 22 wt %, gas gravity = 0.67, Tf = 270°F,
p = 5,000 psi, cf = 20×10-6 psi-1, h = 210 ft, q = 1,500 Mcf/D,
φ = 4%, k = 0.08 md
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Exercise 5
High-Pressure, Low-Permeability Gas Reservoir
Solution
948 φ µ c t ri2
φt ==
k 0.04
µ = 0.02514 cp
ct = 1.151 x 10-4, from Ex. 6, previous section
ri = 745 ft
k = 0.08 md
948 φ µ c t ri2
t=
k
(948 ) (0.04 ) (0.02514 ) (1.151 x10− 4 ) (745 )2
=
0.08
= 761 hrs
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Skin Factor and

Wellbore Storage

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Characterizing Damage and Stimulation

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58
Characterizing Damage and Stimulation

1. List causes of damage skin
2. List causes of geometric skin
3. Describe 2 ways of stimulating a well
4. Calculate skin from pressure drop
5. Calculate flow efficiency from skin
6. Calculate skin factor and wellbore radius
7. Convert skin to fracture half-length
1. List and describe 5 factors that cause skin damage.

2. List and describe 3 factors that cause a geometric skin factor.
3. List and describe 2 ways of stimulating a well.
4. Given formation and fluid properties, be able to calculate skin factor from
additional pressure drop due to damage and vice-versa.
5. Calculate the flow efficiency given the skin factor, the wellbore pressure, and the
average drainage area pressure.
6. Express skin factor as an apparent wellbore radius and vice-versa, given the actual
wellbore radius.
7. Convert skin factor to an equivalent fracture half-length for an infinite-conductivity
fracture and vice-versa.
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Damage Caused by Drilling Fluid
Mud filtrate
invasion
• Mud filtrate invasion reduces effective permeability near wellbore.

• Mud filtrate may cause formation clays to swell, causing damage.
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Damage Caused by Production
P > Pb P < Pb
• In an oil reservoir, pressure near well may be below bubblepoint, allowing free
gas which reduces effective permeability to oil near wellbore.
• In a retrograde gas condensate reservoir, pressure near well may be below
dewpoint, allowing an immobile condensate ring to build up, which reduces
effective permeability to gas near wellbore.
Well Testing
61
Damage Caused by Injection
“Dirty” Incompatible
Water Water
• Injected water may not be clean - fines may plug formation.
• Injected water may not be compatible with formation water - may cause
precipitates to form and plug formation.
• Injected water may not be compatible with clay minerals in formation; fresh water
can destabilize some clays, causing movement of fines and plugging of formation.
Well Testing
62
Reservoir Model of Skin Effect
Bulk
Altered formation
zone
ka k
h
rw
ra
• Consider an undisturbed formation of thickness h and permeability k.
• Assume that something (drilling the well, producing fluid from the well, injecting
fluid into the well) changes the permeability near the wellbore. One simple model
of this effect is to assume that this altered zone has uniform permeability ka and
radius ra, and that the rest of the reservoir is undisturbed.
• For generality, we allow the permeability in the altered zone to be either smaller
or larger than the permeability in the undisturbed formation.
Well Testing
63
Reservoir Pressure Profile
2000
Pressure, psi
1500
1000
∆ps
500
1 10 100 1000 10000
Well Testing
64
Skin and Pressure Drop
0.00708 k h
s= ∆p s
qBµ
• We define the skin factor in terms of the additional pressure drop due to damage.
• As defined, the skin factor is dimensionless -- it has no units.
Nomenclature
k = md
h = ft
q = STB/D
B= bbl/STB
∆ps = psi
µ = cp
Well Testing
65
Skin and Pressure Drop
141.2qBµ
∆p s = s
kh
The skin factor equation may be rearranged to give the additional pressure drop
caused by a given skin factor.
Well Testing
66
Skin Factor and Properties of the Altered Zone
k   ra 
s =  − 1 ln 
 ka   rw 
The skin factor may be calculated from the properties of the altered zone.
If ka < k (damage), skin is positive.
If ka > k (stimulation), skin is negative.
If ka = k, skin is 0.
Well Testing
67
Skin Factor and Properties of the Altered Zone
k
ka =
s
1+
ln(ra rw )
• The equation on the previous slide can be rearranged to solve for the permeability
in the altered zone.
• If we know the reservoir permeability and the skin factor and can estimate the
depth of the altered zone, we can estimate the permeability of the altered zone
using this equation.
Well Testing
68
Effective Wellbore Radius
 rwa 
s = − ln 
 rw 
rwa = rw e − s
• If the permeability in the altered zone ka is much larger than the formation
permeability k, then the wellbore will act like a well having an apparent wellbore
radius rwa.
• The apparent wellbore radius may be calculated from the actual wellbore radius
and the skin factor.
Well Testing
69
Minimum Skin Factor
 re 
smin = − ln 
 rw 
The minimum skin factor possible (most negative skin factor) would occur when the
apparent wellbore radius rwa is equal to the drainage radius re of the well.
Well Testing
70
Minimum Skin Factor Example
r   745 
smin = − ln e  = − ln  = −7.3
 rw   0.5 
For a circular drainage area of 40 acres (re = 745 feet) and a wellbore radius of 0.5
feet, this gives a minimum skin factor (maximum stimulation) of -7.3.
Well Testing
71
Geometric Skin - Converging Flow to

Perforations
When a cased wellbore is perforated, the fluid must converge to one of the
perforations to enter the wellbore. If the shot spacing is too large, this converging
flow results in a positive apparent skin factor. This effect increases as the vertical
permeability decreases, and decreases as the shot density increases.
Well Testing
72
Geometric Skin - Partial Penetration
hp
When a well is completed through only a portion of the net pay interval, the fluid
must converge to flow through a smaller completed interval. This converging flow
also results in a positive apparent skin factor. This effect increases as the vertical
permeability decreases and decreases as the perforated interval as a fraction of the
total interval increases.
Well Testing
73
Partial Penetration
h1
ht
s= sd + s p
ht hp
hp

Well Testing
74
Partial Penetration
Apparent Skin Factor
h1D = h1 ht 1
A=
h1D + h pD 4
h pD = h p ht
1
1 B=
rw  kv  2
h1D + 3h pD 4
rD =  
ht  kh 

 1  π  h 1 
  1  A −1 2 
sp = − 1 ln + ln 
pD
 
 h pD  2rD h pD  2 + h pD  B − 1  
   
Well Testing
75
Geometric Skin - Deviated Wellbore
s = sd + sθ
h
θ h secθ
When a well penetrates the formation at an angle other than 90 degrees, there is
more surface area in contact with the formation. This results in a negative apparent
skin factor. This effect decreases as the vertical permeability decreases, and
increases as the angle from the vertical increases.
Well Testing
76
Deviated Wellbore
Apparent Skin Factor
 kv  h kh
θ w' = tan −1 tanθ w  hD =
 kh  rw kv
 
2.06 1.865
 θ w'   θ w'  h 
sθ = −  −  log D 
 41   56   100 
   

Well Testing
77
Geometric Skin - Well With Hydraulic Fracture
Lf
Often to improve productivity in low-permeability formations, or to penetrate near-

wellbore damage or for sand control in higher permeability formations, a well may
be hydraulically fractured. This creates a high-conductivity path between the
wellbore and the reservoir. If the fracture conductivity is high enough relative to
the formation permeability and the length of the fracture, there will be virtually no
pressure drop down the fracture. This distributes the pressure drop due to influx
into the wellbore over a much larger area, resulting in a negative skin factor.
Well Testing
78
Skin Factor and Fractured Wells
Lf
rwa =
2
L f = 2rwa
If the fracture conductivity is high enough relative to the formation permeability

and the length of the fracture, there is virtually no pressure drop down the fracture,
and the apparent wellbore radius and the fracture half length are related by the
equations shown on this slide.
If the fracture conductivity is lower, there is still a negative skin factor, but a longer
fracture half-length is required to give the same apparent wellbore radius as a high
conductivity fracture. A high-conductivity fracture is one where the dimensionless
fracture conductivity Cr is greater than 100.
This is not a conversion of the area of the fracture open to flow to an equivalent
circumference. It is a rigorous equation
wk f that applies whenever the fracture is high
C = > 100
conductivity and the pressure rtransient has moved some distance beyond the tips of
πkL f
the fracture.
Well Testing
79
Completion Skin
rw
s = s p + sd + sdp
kdp rdp
rp
kR
Lp
 h  rdp  k R k R 
sdp =   ln  − 
kd  L p n  rp  k dp k d 
   
rd
After McLeod, JPT (Jan. 1983) p. 32.
For a well that has been perforated, there is an additional pressure drop across a zone surrounding the
perforations. This pressure drop may be calculated using the radial flow form of Darcy’s law.
NOTE: This expression does not include the effects of non-Darcy flow, which may be extremely
important, especially in hgh-rate gas wells!
Nomenclature:
sp- geometric skin due to converging flow to perforations
sd - damage skin due to drilling fluid invasion
sdp - perforation damage skin
kd - permeability of damaged zone around wellbore, md
kdp - permeability of damaged zone around perforation tunnels, md
kR - reservoir permeability, md
Lp - length of perforation tunnel, ft
n - number of perforations
h - formation thickness, ft
rd - radius of damaged zone around wellbore, ft
rdp - radius of damaged zone around perforation tunnel, ft
rp - radius of perforation tunnel, ft
rw - wellbore radius, ft
Well Testing
80
Gravel Pack Skin
Cement
k R hLg
s gp =
2nk gp rp2
Lg
When a well is gravel packed, there is a pressure drop through the gravel pack within the perforation.
NOTE: This expression does not include the effects of non-Darcy flow, which may be extremely
important, especially in hgh-rate gas wells!
Nomenclature
sgp - skin factor due to Darcy flow through gravel pack
h - net pay thickness
kgp - permeability of gravel pack gravel, md
kR - reservoir permeablity, md
Lg - length of flow path through gravel pack, ft
n - number of perforations open
rp - radius of perforation tunnel, ft
Well Testing
81
Productivity Index
q
J≡
p − p wf
• The productivity index is often used to predict how changes in average pressure
or flowing bottomhole pressure pwf will affect
p the flow rate q.
• The productivity index is affected by
– Reservoir quality (permeability)
– Skin factor
Well Testing
82
Flow Efficiency
J p − p wf − ∆p s
Ef ≡ actual =
Jideal p − p wf
• We can express the degree of damage on stimulation with the flow efficiency.
• For a well with neither damage nor stimulation, Ef = 1.
• For a damaged well, Ef < 1
• For a stimulated well, Ef > 1

Well Testing
83
Flow Efficiency and Rate
E
qnew = qold fnew
E fold
We can use the flow efficiency to calculate the effects of changes in skin factor on
the production rate corresponding to a given pressure drawdown.
qnew = Flow rate after change in skin factor

qold = Flow rate before change in skin factor
Efnew = Flow efficiency after change in skin factor
Efold = Flow efficiency before change in skin factor
Well Testing
84
Exercise 1
Damage and Skin Factor Calculations
1. Calculate the additional pressure drop due to skin for a well producing at 2,000
STB/D. Oil formation volume factor is 1.07 RB/STB, viscosity is 19 cp,
permeability is 5400 md, net pay thickness is 175 ft, skin factor is 11, and
porosity is 1.2%.
2. Calculate the flow efficiency for the well in Problem 1, if the average reservoir
pressure is 1,800 psi and the flowing bottomhole pressure is 1,600 psi.
3. Calculate the apparent wellbore radius for the well in Problem 1, if the bit
diameter is 8 in.
4. Calculate the new skin factor if we create a 100-ft fracture in the reservoir in
Problem 1.
Well Testing
85
Exercise 1
Damage and Skin Factor Calculations
Solution
1.
141.2 q B µ
∆ps =
kh
=
(141.2) (2000 ) (1.07 ) (19 ) (11)
(5400 ) (175 )
= 66.8 psi
2.
p − p wf − ∆p s
Ef =
p − p wf
1800 − 1600 − 66.8

=
1800 − 1600
3.
= 66.6%
rwa = rw e −s
4 −11
= e
4. 12
= 5.6 x 10 − 6 ft
r 
s = ln  w 
 rwa 
 r 
= ln  w 
 Lf / 2 
 4 / 12 
= ln  
 100 / 2 
= −5
Well Testing
86
Wellbore Storage

Well Testing
87
Wellbore Storage
Define wellbore unloading

Define afterflow
Calculate wellbore storage (WBS) Coefficient for wellbore
filled with A single-phase fluid
Calculate WBS coefficient for rising liquid level

Well Testing
88
Fluid-Filled Wellbore - Unloading
Surface Rate
Rate
Bottomhole
Rate
Time
dpw
=
(
q − qsf B )
dt 24Vwb cwb

Well Testing
89
Fluid-Filled Wellbore - Afterflow
Surface Rate
Rate
Bottomhole
Rate
∆t=0
Time
dpw
=
(
q − qsf B )
dt 24Vwb cwb

Well Testing
90
Rising Liquid Level
Surface Rate
Rate
Bottomhole
Rate
∆t=0
Time
dpw
=
( 
)
q − qsf B  5.615 ρ wb  g 
 
dt 24  144 A  g 
 wb  c 

Well Testing
91
Wellbore Storage
Fluid-filled dpw
=
( )
q − qsf B
wellbore dt 24Vwb cwb
Rising liquid dpw

=
( )
q − qsf B  5.615 ρ wb  g
 


level dt 24  144 A  g 
 wb  c 
dpw
=
( )
q − qsf B
General
dt 24C

Well Testing
92
Wellbore Storage Definition
C≡
(q − qsf )B
dpw
24
dt
Fluid-filled Rising
wellbore liquid level
144 Awb g c
C=
C = Vwb cwb 5.615 ρ wb g
Awb
= 25.65
ρ wb
Nomenclature:
C - Wellbore storage coefficient, bbl/psi
q - Flow rate out of wellbore at surface, STB/D
qsf - Flow rate into wellbore at sand face, STB/D
B - Formation volume factor, bbl/STB
pw - Wellbore bottomhole pressure, psi
t - Time, hrs
Awb - Area of wellbore, ft2
gc - Gravitational constant, 32.2 lbf ft/s2/lbm
g - Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
ρwb - Density of fluid in wellbore, lbm/ft3
cwb - Compressibility of fluid in wellbore, psi-1
Vwb - Wellbore volume, bbl
Well Testing
93
Exercise 2
Calculate WBS Coefficient For Single-Phase Liquid
Calculate the wellbore volume and WBS coefficient for a wellbore filled with a single
phase liquid. The well is 2600 ft deep and has 6 5/8”, 24 lb/ft casing (5.921” ID). The
bottomhole pressure is 1,690 psi. If the well is filled with water (cw = 4 x 10-6 psi-1) what
is the wellbore storage coefficient?
Well Testing
94
Exercise 2
Calculate WBS Coefficient For Single-Phase Liquid
Solution
First, calculate the wellbore volume, using the equation for the volume of a right
circular cylinder:
V = π r2 h
2
 5.921 
= π   (2600 )
 (2 )(12 ) 
= 497 ft 3
497 ft 3
=
5.615 ft 3 / bbl
= 88.5 bbl
Next, calculate the WBS coefficient.
c = Vwbc wb
(
= (88.5 ) 4 X 10 − 6 )
= 3.54 X 10 − 4
Well Testing
95
Exercise 3
Calculate WBS Coefficient For Rising Liquid Level
Calculate the cross-sectional area and wellbore storage coefficient for a wellbore
with a rising liquid level. The well is 2600 ft deep and has 6 5/8”, 24 lb/ft casing
(5.921” ID). the bottomhole pressure is 750 psi. If the well has a column of water
of density 1.04 g/cm3, in it, what is the wellbore storage coefficient?
Well Testing
96
Exercise 3
Calculate WBS Coefficient For Rising Liquid Level
Solution
First, calculate the cross-sectional area of the wellbore, using the equation for the
area of a circle:
A = π r2
 5.921 
=π 
 2.12 
= 0.191 ft 2
Next, calculate the WBS coefficient:
A wb
c = 25.65
ρ wb
= (25.65 )
(0.191)
 3
1.04 g / cm3 x 62.4 lbm / ft 
 g / cm3 

= 7.56 x 10 − 2 bbl / psi

Well Testing
97
Exercise 4
Calculate WBS Coefficient for Single-Phase Gas
A wellbore is filled with a single-phase gas. the well has 7200 ft of 2 7/8” tubing
(2.441” ID) and 375 ft of 6 5/8”, 24 lb/ft casing (5.921” ID). the average
temperature in the wellbore is 155°F, and the average pressure is 2,775 psia. If the
wellbore is filled with gas having 0.77 gas gravity and 0.2% CO2, what is the WBS
coefficient?
Well Testing
98
Exercise 4
Calculate WBS Coefficient for Single-Phase Gas
Solution
First, calculate the wellbore volume using the equation for the volume of a right
circular cylinder:
Vwb = Vtbg + Vcsg
π rtbg
2
htbg + π rcsg
2
hcsg
 2.441  2  5.921 
2 
= π   (7200 ) +   (375 )
 (2) (12 )   (2) (12 )  
 
= 306 ft 3
= 54 bbls
Next, use FLPROP to calculate the gas compressibility
cg = 3.21 x 10-4 psi-1
Finally, calculate the WBS coefficient:

C = Vwb cwb
= (54) (3.21 x 10-4) = 0.017 bbl/psi
Well Testing
99
Semilog Analysis for Oil Wells

Well Testing
100
Semilog Analysis
1. Analyze constant-rate drawdown
2. Analyze buildup

1. Analyze a constant-rate drawdown test using semilog analysis.
a. Identify the data that correspond to the middle time region on the diagnostic
plot.
b. Calculate permeability and skin factor from a semilog graph.
2. Analyze a buildup test following a constant-rate flow period using the Horner method.
a. Calculate the Horner pseudo-producing time for variable rate production.
b. List the conditions that must be satisfied for the Horner pseudo-producing
time to be applicable without referring to the text.
c. Identify the data that correspond to the middle time region on the diagnostic
plot.
d. Calculate permeability, skin factor, and initial pressure from a Horner graph
for a buildup test in a well in an infinite-acting reservoir.
Well Testing
101
qBµ  948φµc tr 2 
p = pi + 70.6 Ei − 

kh  kt 

Well Testing
102
Reservoir Pressure Profile
2000
s = -2
1500
Pressure, psi
s = +5
1000
s=0
500
1 10 100 1000 10000
Note that the skin factor affects the pressure response only within the altered zone.
The pressure profile at points beyond the radius of the altered zone is not affected
by the skin factor.
We have already seen that the additional pressure drop due to skin at the wellbore
can be calculated from the flow rate and fluid and rock properties.
We can modify the Ei-function solution to apply for 2 cases: 1) at the wellbore, and
(2) beyond the altered zone.
Well Testing
103
Incorporating Skin into the

For r = rw
qBµ   948 φ µ c t rw
2 


p = pi + 70.6 Ei − − 2s 
kh   kt 
 

For r > ra
q Bµ  948 φ µ c t r 2 
p = pi + 70.6 Ei −
kh  kt 
 
Neither of these expressions is valid within the altered zone.

Neither of these expressions is valid until after the logarithmic approximation to the
Ei-function becomes applicable throughout the altered zone.
Well Testing
104
Log Approximation to the

Ei-Function
qBµ   k  
p wf = pi − 162.6 log10 (t ) + log10   − 3.23 + 0.869 s 
kh   φµc r 2  
  t w
y = mx + b
948 φµc trw2

When < 0.01, we may use the logarithmic approximation to the Ei-
kt
function.
This expression may be written in the same form as the equation of a straight line.
p wf ~ y
log10 (t ) ~ x
162.6qBµ
− ~m
kh
qBµ   k  
pi − 162.6 log10   − 3.23 + 0.869s ~ b
kh   φµc r 2  
  tw
Well Testing
105
Estimating Permeability and Skin
162.6qBµ
k=
mh
p − p  k  
s = 1.151 i 1hr − log   + 3 . 23 
10  2 
 m  φµc trw  
A graph of pwf vs. log10(t) should fall on a straight line.
Slope m allows us to estimate permeability.
Intercept b (which is usually referred to as p1hr), allows us to estimate skin factor s.

Well Testing
106
Drawdown Test Graph

1200
1100
Pressure, psi
1000 (t2, pwf2)
900
(t1, pwf1)
800
700
0.1 1 10 100 1000

Elapsed Test Time, hrs
Slope m
p wf 2 − p wf 1
m= .
log10 (t 2 ) − log10 (t1)
(t1, pwf1), (t2, pwf2) are any two points on the straight line portion of the graph.
Normally, t1 and t2 are chosen to be powers of 10.

For best accuracy, pick points several log cycles apart.
The point p1hr is the pressure on the best straight line through the data at a time of 1
hr. It may be necessary to extrapolate the straight line to a time of 1 hr to read p1hr.
In a real test, all, some, or none of the data points may fall on a straight line of the
correct slope.
This “correct semilog straight line” corresponds to the data identified as the middle-
time region on the diagnostic plot.
Well Testing
107
Exercise 1
Determining permeability and skin factor from a constant-rate

flow test
The data summarized below were recorded during a pressure drawdown test from
an oil well. Estimate the effective permeability to oil and the skin factor using the
graphical analysis technique for a constant-rate flow test.
q = 250 STB/D pi = 4,412 psia
h = 46 ft φ = 12%
rw = 0.365 ft B = 1.136 RB/STB
ct = 17 x 10-6 psi-1 m = 0.8 cp
Pressure Drawdown Test Data for Exercise 1

t pwf t pwf
2 3510.3 18 3414.5
3 3492.7 24 3402.0
4 3480.1 30 3392.3
6 3462.4 36 3384.3
8 3449.9 48 3371.8
10 3440.2 60 3362.1
12 3432.2 72 3354.1
15 3422.5
Well Testing
108
Exercise 1
3600
3550
3500
Pressure, psi
3450
3400
3350
3300
1 10 100
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Time, hrs

Well Testing
109
Exercise 1
Solution
1. First, we plot flowing bottomhole pressure, pwf, as a function of time on semilog

paper. The slope, m, of the resulting straight line is the difference between
values of pwf one log cycle apart, or
p wf 2 − p wf 1 3,540 psia − 3,340 psia

m= = = 100 psi cycle
log(t 2 ) − log(t1 ) log(100 ) − log(1)
where by convention we use the absolute value of the slope.
2. Effective permeability to oil is estimated using the absolute value of the slope,
m, of the line,
162 .6qBµ (162 .6 )(250 )(1.136 )(0.8 )

k= = = 8.0 md
mh (100 )(46 )
Well Testing
110
Exercise 1
Solution
3600
3550
p1hr = 3540
3500
Pressure, psi
3450
m = 100 psi/cycle
3400
3350
p100hr = 3340
3300
1 10 100
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Time, hrs
3. Noting that p1hr = 3,540 psi, we calculate the skin factor.
p − p  k  
s = 1.151 i 1hr − log  + 3.23 
 m  φµc r 2  
 tw 
 4,412 − 3,540  8  
− log  + 3.23 
= 1.151
 100  ( )
 (0.12 )(0.8 ) 17 × 10 −6 (0.365 )2 
 
= 5.05
As we shall discuss later, a positive value of skin factor indicates a flow
restriction (i.e., damage) around the wellbore.
Well Testing
111
Problems with Drawdown Tests
It is difficult to produce a well at a strictly constant rate

Even small variations in rate distort the pressure response
There is one rate that is easy to maintain – A flow rate of
zero.
A buildup test is conducted by shutting in a producing well
and measuring the resulting pressure response.

Well Testing
112
Buildup Test - Rate History
0
tp ∆t
0 tp + ∆t
0 ∆t
-q
Consider the rate history for an idealized buildup test. A well is produced at rate q
for a time tp, then is shut in for a buildup test. The rate history can be represented as
the algebraic sum of two different constant rate flow periods – one at rate q,
beginning at t = 0, and another at rate -q, beginning at
∆t = 0.
Well Testing
113
Buildup Test - Pressure Response
tp + ∆t
0 ∆t
tp ∆t
The pressure response for the rate history shown on the previous slide can also be
obtained by adding the pressure responses from each of the two rate flow histories.
Well Testing
114
Buildup Test - Superposition
qBµ   k  
p ws = pi − 162.6 log10 (tp + ∆t ) + log10   − 3.23 + 0.869s
2 
kh   φµc trw  
qBµ   k  
+ 162.6 log10 (∆t ) + log10   − 3.23 + 0.869s
2 
kh   φµc trw  
The second term on the RHS of this equation gives the pressure change due to
production at constant rate q beginning at t = 0.
The third term on the RHS of this equation gives the pressure change due to
injection at constant rate q beginning at t = tp, or ∆t = 0.
This equation can be simplified by canceling terms within the square brackets, as
shown on the next slide.
Well Testing
115
Pressure Response for a

Buildup Test
qBµ  t p + ∆t 
p ws = pi − 162.6 log10  
kh  ∆t 
y = mx + b
As with the drawdown equation, this equation may also be written in the same form
as the equation of a straight line.
p ws ~ y
 tp + ∆t 
log10   ~ x
 ∆ t 
qBµ
− 162.6 ~m
kh
pi ~ b
Well Testing
116
Buildup Test
Straight Line Analogy
162 .6qBµ
k=
mh
tp + ∆ t
pi = b @ =1
∆t
t p + ∆t
The quantity is called the Horner time ratio.
∆t
A graph of pws vs. + ∆t fall on a straight line
 tshould
log10  p 
 ∆ t 
Slope m of the resulting straight line allows us to estimate permeability
Intercept b at = 0 or = 1 gives us the initial pressure pi.
 t + ∆t   t + ∆t 
log10  p   p 
 ∆t   ∆t 
Well Testing
117
Buildup Test Graph

2000
1900
pi
Pressure, psi
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
10000 1000 100 10 1
Horner time ratio
p ws2 − p ws1
The slope m is obtained from m= .
 t p + ∆t   t p + ∆t 
log10   − log10  
 + ∆  ∆t
 on the straight
2 line portion
 ∆t
(  t p + ∆t, pws1) and (  p of 1
t t
, p ws2) are any two points
 ∆t    ∆t
 graph. 1  2
the
Normally  t p + ∆t and  t p + ∆tare

 chosen to be powers of 10.
 ∆t   ∆t 
 1  2
For best accuracy, pick points several log cycles apart (Why?)
In a real test, all, some, or none of the data may fall on a straight line of the correct
slope. This “correct semilog straight line” corresponds to the data identified as the
middle-time region on the diagnostic plot.
Note that the HTR on the x-axis decreases from left to right, so that time increases
from left to right. You may also see Horner plots drawn with HTR increasing from
left to right. When this is the case, be aware that time increases from right to left.
Well Testing
118
Estimating Skin Factor From A Buildup Test
 p1hr − p wf  k  
s = 1.151 − log10   + 3.23
 φµc trw
2
 m  
To estimate the skin factor from a buildup test, we have to know the flowing
bottomhole pressure at the instant of shutin, pwf.
The point p1hr is the pressure on the best straight line through the data at a time of 1
hour. It may be necessary to extrapolate the straight line to a Horner time ratio
corresponding to a time of 1 hour in order to read p1hr.
Well Testing
119
Horner Pseudoproducing Time
24Np
tp =
qlast
Wells are almost never produced at exactly constant rate prior to shut-in.
Variations in rate prior to shut-in can be accounted for in many cases by the use of
the Horner pseudoproducing time approximation. When this approximation is used,
the buildup analysis is performed by treating the well as if it had produced at rate
qlast for a time tp.
This approximation applies when the well produced at rate qlast for a period at least
10x as long as the duration of the shut-in period.
If the last rate qlast is lower than the average production rate, the Horner
pseudoproducing time will be longer than the actual elapsed production time.
The Horner pseudoproducing time preserves material balance. That is, a well
producing at a constant rate qlast for a time tp will produce exactly the same amount
of fluid as the actual variable rate history.
Well Testing
120
Exercise 2
Determining permeability and reservoir pressure from

buildup tests
A pressure buildup test was conducted on a well early in the life of an oil reservoir
having the properties summarized below. The well was produced at a constant rate
of 80 STB/D for 999 hours prior to being shut in. Determine the effective
permeability to oil, the original reservoir pressure, and skin factor.
m = 2.95 cp ct = 15 x 10-6 psi-1
rw = 0.25 ft h = 32 ft
φ = 15% B = 1.25 RB/STB
q = 80 STB/D tp = 999 hrs
pwf = 1847.8 psia
Pressure Buildup Test Data

t HTR pws t HTR pws
2 2615.1 18 2662.5
3 2623.9 24 2668.6
4 2630.1 30 2673.3
6 2638.9 36 2677.1
8 2645.1 48 2683.1
10 2649.9 60 2687.7
12 2653.8 72 2691.4
15 2658.6
Well Testing
121
Exercise 2
2800
2750
2700
Pressure, psi
2650
2600
2550
2500
1000 100 10 1

Horner Time Ratio
Well Testing
122
Exercise 2
Solution
1. First, construct a semilog plot of shut-in pressure, pws, as a function of the

Horner time ratio, (tp + ∆t)/∆t. The calculated Horner time ratios are given in
the table below, while the semilog plot is shown on the next slide. The absolute
value of the slope of the semilog straight line.
p ws2 − p ws1
m=
 tp + ∆t 2   t + ∆t1 
log  − log p 
 ∆t 2   ∆t1 
1,850 − 1,950
=
log(10 ) − log(1)
= 100psi cycle
t HTR pws t HTR pws

2 500.5 2615.1 18 56.5 2662.5
3 334 2623.9 24 42.625 2668.6
4 250.75 2630.1 30 34.3 2673.3
6 167.5 2638.9 36 28.75 2677.1
8 125.875 2645.1 48 21.8125 2683.1
10 100.9 2649.9 60 17.65 2687.7
12 84.25 2653.8 72 14.875 2691.4
15 67.6 2658.6
Well Testing
123
Exercise 2
Solution
2800
p* = 2750
2750
2700
Pressure, psi
2650
m = 50 psi/cycle
2600
p1hr = 2600
2550
2500
1000 100 10 1
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Horner Time Ratio
2. Next, we calculate the effective permeability to oil using the slope of the straight
line.
162 .6qBµ 162 .6(80 )(1.25 )(2.95 )

k= = = 30 md
mh (50 )(32 )
3. The original reservoir pressure is found by extrapolating the semilog straight line
in Fig. 2.9 to infinite shut-in time, i.e., (tp + ∆t)/ ∆t = 1. The pressure at this point
is pi = 2,750 psia. At ∆t = 1 hour, the Horner time ratio is (tp + ∆t)/ ∆t = (999 +
1)/1 = 1000. From the extrapolated semilog straight line, p1hr = 2,600 psia at this
value.
4. The skin factor is
 (p − p )  k  
s = 1.151 1hr wf
− log  + 3.23
 m  φµc r 2  
 t w 
 (2,600 − 1847 .8 )  30  
= 1.151 − log  + 3.23
 50  ( )
 (0.15 )(2.95 ) 15 × 10 − 6 (0.25 )2 
 
= 10.4
Well Testing
124
Type Curve Analysis

Well Testing
125
Type Curve Analysis

1. Identify wellbore storage and middle time regions on type

curve.
2. Identify pressure response for a well with high, zero, or
negative skin.
3. Calculate equivalent time.
4. Calculate wellbore storage coefficient, permeability, and
skin factor from type curve match.

1. Identify wellbore storage and middle time regions on type
curve.
2. Identify pressure response for a well with high, zero, or
negative skin.
3. Calculate the equivalent time for use in analyzing pressure
buildup tests using drawdown type curves.
4. Calculate wellbore storage coefficient, permeability, and skin
factor from type curve match.
Well Testing
126
Dimensionless Variables

Well Testing
127
qBµ  948φµct r 2 
p = pi + 70.6 Ei −
kh  kt 
 
r
rD ≡
  r 
2  rw
   
kh( pi − p ) 1  r 
 w

= − Ei − 
141.2qBµ 2   0.0002637 kt  
 4 

  φµ c r 2

 t w
kh( pi − p )
pD ≡ tD ≡
0.0002637kt
141.2qBµ φµct rw2
1  rD2 
pD = − Ei −
2  4t D 
Well Testing
128
Radial Flow With WBS And Skin
kh( pi − p ) 0.0002637 kt
pD ≡ tD ≡
141.2qBµ φµct rw2
r
rD ≡
rw
kh∆ps 0.8936C
s≡ CD ≡
141.2qBµ φct hrw2

Well Testing
129
Gringarten Type Curve
Constant rate production

Vertical well
Infinite-acting homogeneous reservoir
Single-phase, slightly compressible liquid
Infinitesimal skin factor
Constant wellbore storage coefficient
The Gringarten type curve describes the pressure response

under the following assumptions:
1. Constant rate production from a
2. Vertical wellbore in an
3. Infinite-acting homogeneous reservoir that is
4. Filled with single phase liquid of small and constant
compressibility
5. Infinitesimal skin that may be modeled with an apparent
wellbore radius
6. Constant wellbore storage coefficient
The Gringarten type curve was specifically developed for
drawdown tests in oil wells. We will see that we may use it (with
some limitations) to analyze pressure buildup tests in addition to
drawdown tests, and to analyze gas well tests as well as oil well
tests.
Well Testing
130
Pressure Type Curve
100
CDe2s=1060
10
CDe2s=100
pD
CDe2s=0.01
0.1
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved tD/CD
Well Testing
131
Pressure Derivative
162.6qBµ   kt  
∆p = log 2 
− 3 . 23 + 0 . 869 s 
kh   φµct rw  
∂∆p ∂∆p ∂pD ∂pD

t = =
∂ ln (t )
tD
∂t ∂t D ∂ ln(t D )
∂∆p 70.6qBµ ∂pD

t = tD = 0.5
∂t kh ∂t D

Well Testing
132
Derivative Type Curve

100
CDe2s=1060
10
CDe2s=100
tDpD'
0.1
CDe2s=0.01
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

tD/CD
Well Testing
133
Pressure And Derivative Type Curves

100
10
pD, tDpD'
0.1
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

tD/CD
Well Testing
134
Time Regions On The Type Curve

100
WBS Transition Radial Flow

10
p’D=0.5 Horizontal Derivative

pD
Unit Slope Line
0.1
Early Time Middle Time

Region Region
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

tD/CD
Well Testing
135
Estimating Skin Factor

100
High Skin
10
No Skin
pD, tDpD'
0.1
Negative Skin
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

tD/CD
Skin factor may be estimated qualitatively by the shape of the

pressure and pressure derivative response.
• High skin factor
• The pressure derivative rises to a maximum and then falls
sharply before flattening out for the MTR.
• The pressure curve rises along a unit slope then flattens out
quickly.
• The pressure and pressure derivative are separated by ~2 log
cycles after the end of WBS.
• Little or no skin factor
• The pressure derivative rises to a maximum, then falls only
slightly before flattening out for the MTR.
• The pressure and pressure derivative are separated by ~1 log
cycle after the end of WBS.
• Negative skin factor
• The pressure derivative approaches a horizontal line from
below.
• The pressure and pressure derivative both leave the unit slope
line early, but take a long time to reach the MTR.
Well Testing
136
Equivalent Time For PBU Tests
qBµ   k  
pi − pwf = 162.6 ( )
log10 t p + log  − 3.23 + 0.869 s 
2 
kh   φµct rw  
qBµ  k  
pi − pws = 162.6 ( )
log10 t p + ∆t + log  − 3.23 + 0.869s 
2 
kh  φµct rw  
qBµ   k  
− 162.6 log10 (∆t ) + log  − 3.23 + 0.869s 
2 
kh   φµct rw  

Well Testing
137
qBµ   k  
pws − pwf = +162.6 ( )
log10 t p + log  − 3.23 + 0.869s 
2 
qBµ   k  
− 162.6 ( )
log10 t p + ∆t + log  − 3.23 + 0.869s 
2 
qBµ   k  
+ 162.6 log10 (∆t ) + log  − 3.23 + 0.869s 
2 
qBµ   t ∆t    
 + log k  − 3.23 + 0.869s 
pws − pwf = 162.6 log10  p
kh   t p + ∆t   φµc r 2  
    t w 

Well Testing
138
qBµ   k  
pi − pwf = 162.6 ( )
log10 t p + log  − 3.23 + 0.869 s 
2 
qBµ   t p ∆t    
 + log k  − 3.23 + 0.869s 
pws − pwf = 162.6 log10 
kh   t p + ∆t   φµc r 2  
    t w
qBµ   k  
pws − pwf = 162.6 log10 (∆te ) + log  − 3.23 + 0.869 s 
kh   φµc r 2  
  t w

Well Testing
139
Drawdown
∆p = pi − pwf vs t
Buildup
∆p = pws − pwf vs ∆te

Well Testing
140
Properties Of Equivalent Time
t p ∆t
∆te ≡
t p + ∆t
tp
= ∆t ≈ ∆t , ∆t << t p
t p + ∆t
∆t
= tp ≈ t p , ∆t >> t p
t p + ∆t
tp
=
HTR
Well Testing
141
Adjusted Variables For Gas Wells
 µz  p p' dp '
pa ≡  
 p  ref
∫
p '= 0 µ ( p ')z ( p ')
∆t
∆t a ≡ (µct )ref
dt '
∫
t '= 0 µ ( p )ct ( p )
Ca ≡ Vwb cg ref

Well Testing
142
Type Curve Matching
Plot field data on log-log scale

Align horizontal part of field data and type curve derivative
Align unit slope part of field data and type curve
Select value of CDe2s that best matches field data

Well Testing
143
TCMATCH.WTD (Field Data)
10000
1000
Pressure change, psi
100
10
1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Equivalent time, hrs

Well Testing
144
TCMATCH.WTD (Drawdown type curve, Radial equivalent time)

Radial flow, Single porosity, Infinite-acting: Varying CDe2s
100
10
1000
Dimensionless pressure
1
Pressure change, psi 100
0.1
10
0.01
1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Equivalent time, hr
0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Dimensionless time
Well Testing
145

100
1000
10

100
10
0.1
1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Equivalent time, hr
0.01
0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Dimensionless time
Well Testing
146

100
1000
10

100
10
0.1
1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Equivalent time, hr
0.01
0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Dimensionless time
Well Testing
147

100
CDe2s=7x109
pD=10 ∆p=262 1000
psi
10

100
10
0.1
1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Equivalent time, hr
0.01 teq=0.0546 hr
0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
tD/CD=1 Dimensionless time

Well Testing
148
Interpreting Type Curve Match
Calculate k from the pressure match point ratio ∆p/pD

Calculate CD from the time match point ratio teq/tD
Calculate s from the matching stem value CDe2s

Well Testing
149
Calculate k From Pressure Match
141.2qBµ  pD 
k=  
h  ∆p  M .P.
k=
(141.2)(50)(1.325)(0.609)  10 
 
(15)  262 
= 14.5 md

Well Testing
150
Calculate CD From Time Match
0.0002637 k  teq 
CD =  
φµct rw  t D CD
2 
 M . P.
(0.0002637 )(14.5)  0.0546 

(0.183)(0.609)(1.76 × 10 )(0.25)  1 
CD = −5
 
= 1703

Well Testing
151
Calculate s From CDe2s
1  C D e 2 s 

s = ln
2  C D 

1  7 × 109 
s = ln
2  1703 
= 7. 6

Well Testing
152
Flow Regimes and the Diagnostic Plot

Well Testing
153
The Diagnostic Plot

1. Identify time regions.
2. Identify flow regimes.
3. List factors that affect pressure response in early time.
4. List boundaries that affect pressure response in late time.

1. Identify the early, middle, and late time regions on a diagnostic plot.
2. Identify the following flow regimes from their characteristic shape on a diagnostic
plot: volumetric/PSS/recharge behavior, radial flow, linear flow, bilinear flow,
spherical flow.
3. List 3 things that may affect the pressure response during the early time region.
4. List 3 types of boundaries that may affect the pressure response during the late time
region.
Well Testing
154
The Diagnostic Plot
Pressure change, derivative, psi
Elapsed time, hrs

The diagnostic plot is a log-log plot of pressure change and pressure derivative on
the vertical axis vs. test time on the horizontal axis. The pressure derivative is
defined as the derivative of pressure with respect to the natural logarithm of time.
• Pressure change vs. time
– Flow test -
– Buildup test -
• Pressure derivative ∆p = pi − p wf
–
–
( )
Change in pressure per unit fractional change in time
Mathematically,
∆p = p ws − p wf ∆t = 0
– Has units of pressure, can be plotted together with pressure on same

graph ∂∆p ∂∆p
t =
∂t ∂ ln(t )
Well Testing
155
Time Regions on the Diagnostic Plot
Early-time Middle- Late-time

region time region
region
Elapsed time, hrs
Early-time region: wellbore and near-wellbore effects. These effects include

wellbore storage, skin factor, partial penetration, phase redistribution, and finite-
and infinite-conductivity hydraulic fractures.
Middle time region: infinite-acting reservoir behavior. A homogeneous reservoir
will give a horizontal derivative response during the middle time region. Data
during this region provide the best estimate of reservoir permeability.
Late-time region: boundary effects. There are a large number of different types of
boundaries that may affect the pressure response, including sealing faults, closed
reservoirs, and gas/water, oil/water, and gas/oil contacts.
Well Testing
156
Flow Regimes
Common geometric shapes

Different flow patterns may appear at different times in a
single test
Flow regimes follow sequence within model
• Common geometric shapes occur in many different reservoir models
• A single reservoir model may exhibit different flow patterns at different times
- Flow regimes occur in a specific sequence for a given model
• Flow Regimes
- Volumetric behavior
- Radial flow
- Linear flow
- Bilinear flow
- Spherical flow
Well Testing
157
Volumetric Behavior
Volumetric behavior occurs when the wellbore, the reservoir, or part of the reservoir
acts like a tank. Perhaps the most common occurrence of volumetric behavior is in
wellbore storage, although it is not limited to WBS.
Volumetric behavior can occur during either a flow test or a buildup test. However, if it
occurs during a buildup test, it indicates that whatever part of the reservoir acts like a
tank is being recharged from somewhere else. During a flow test, volumetric behavior
may indicate a closed reservoir.
•Causes
– Wellbore storage
– Pseudosteady state
– Recharge
Well Testing
158
Volumetric Behavior
qBt
Wellbore ∆p =
Storage 24C
Pseudosteady- 0.0744qBt 141.2qBµ   re  3 

pi − pwf = + ln  − + s 
State Flow φct hre2
kh   rw  4 
General Form ∆p = mV t + bV

Well Testing
159
Volumetric Behavior
General Form ∆p = mV t + bV
∂∆p ∂ (mV t + bV )
Derivative t =t
∂t ∂t
= mV t

Well Testing
160
Volumetric Behavior
Pressure change, derivative
Time
Volumetric behavior is recognized on the diagnostic plot by the pressure derivative

following a unit-slope line, where the line moves one log cycle vertically for each log
cycle of horizontal movement.
The pressure change may or may not follow the same unit slope line. During wellbore
storage, typically the pressure change and the pressure derivative will lie on top of each
other. During pseudosteady-state flow or recharge, the pressure and derivative will not
coincide.
• Shape of derivative
– Unit slope line
Well Testing
161
Radial Flow
Radial flow occurs in many common situations.

Data within the radial flow regime can be used to estimate formation permeability
and skin factor.
• Causes of radial flow
- Vertical well
- Fractured well after transient has moved beyond tips of fracture
- Horizontal well before transient reaches top and bottom of zone
- Horizontal well after transient has moved beyond ends of wellbore
Well Testing
162
Radial Flow
162.6qBµ   kt  
Vertical Well ∆p = log  − 3.23 + 0.869 s 
  φµct rw 
2
kh 
General Form ∆p = m log(t ) + b

Well Testing
163
Radial Flow
General Form
∆p = m log(t ) + b
∂∆p ∂ (m log(t ) + b )
t =t
Derivative ∂t ∂t
m
=
2.303

Well Testing
164
Radial Flow
Time
On the diagnostic plot, radial flow is recognized by the horizontal derivative.

• Shape of Derivative
- Horizontal
Well Testing
165
Linear Flow
Linear flow is also quite common, occurring in channel reservoirs, hydraulically

fractured wells, and horizontal wells.
From data within the linear flow regime, we can estimate channel width or fracture
half-length, if we know the permeability. Or, we can estimate the permeability
perpendicular to a horizontal well if we know how much of the well is open to flow.
• Causes of linear flow
- Well with a high-conductivity fracture
- Well in a channel reservoir (reservoir with parallel no-flow boundaries)
- Horizontal well
Well Testing
166
Linear Flow
12
16.26qBµ  kt 
Channel ∆p =  
khw  φµct 

12
Hydraulic 4.064qBµ  kt 
∆p =  
Fracture khL f  φµct 

General Form ∆p = mLt1 2 + bL

Well Testing
167
Linear Flow
General Form ∆p = mLt1 2 + bL
t
∂∆p
=t
(
∂ mLt1 2 + bL )
Derivative
∂t ∂t
1
= mLt1 2
2

Well Testing
168
Linear Flow
Time
The linear flow regime is recognized on the diagnostic plot by the derivative
following a half-slope line. The half-slope line moves one log cycle vertically for
each two log-cycles of horizontal movement.
The pressure change may or may not also follow a half-slope line. In an undamaged
hydraulically fractured well, the pressure change typically follows a half-slope line.
In a channel reservoir, a hydraulically fractured well with damage, or a horizontal
well, the pressure change will approach the half-slope line from above.
- ½ slope
Well Testing
169
Bilinear Flow
Bilinear flow occurs primarily in low-conductivity hydraulically fractured wells.

From this flow regime, we can estimate fracture conductivity wkf.
• Causes of bilinear flow

- Well with a low-conductivity fracture
Well Testing
170
Bilinear Flow
12 14
Hydraulic 44.1qBµ  1 

 t 
∆p =  
 φµc k 
Fracture h  wk f 
   t 
General Form ∆p = mB t1 4 + bB

Well Testing
171
Bilinear Flow
General Form ∆p = mBt1 4 + bB
t
∂∆p
=t
(
∂ mBt1 4 + bB )
Derivative
∂t ∂t
1
= mB t 1 4
4

Well Testing
172
Bilinear Flow

Time
The bilinear flow regime is recognized on the diagnostic plot by the derivative
following a quarter-slope line. The quarter-slope line moves one log cycle
vertically for every four log-cycles of horizontal movement.
The pressure change may or may not also follow a quarter-slope line. In an
undamaged hydraulically fractured well, the pressure change typically follows the
quarter-slope line as soon as wellbore storage effects have ended. In a hydraulically
fractured well with damage, the pressure change will approach the quarter-slope
line from above.
This flow regjme is easily confused with the linear flow regime. Particular attention
should be paid to the slope of the derivative to distinguish these two flow regimes.
- ¼ slope
Well Testing
173
Spherical Flow
Spherical flow occurs when the pressure transient is free to propagate in three
dimensions. This can occur for wells that penetrate only a short distance into the
pay zone, or in wells that have only a limited number of perforations open to flow.
This flow regime also commonly occurs during wireline formation tests.
From data in the spherical flow regime, we can estimate the geometric mean
permeability.
• Causes of spherical flow

- Vertical well with only a few perforations open
- Vertical well with only a small part of the zone perforated
- Some wireline formation test tools
Well Testing
174
Spherical Flow
 φµct rp2 
qµ  
Spherical Probe (RFT) pi − pwf = 1 − 
4πkrp  kt 
 
General Form ∆p = bS − mS t −1 2
Nomenclature
The Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) probe equation uses SI units:
ct - Total compressibility, Pa-1
k - Permeability, m2
pi - Initial pressure, Pa
pwf - Probe pressure, Pa
q - Flow rate, m3/s
rp - Probe radius, m
t - Time, s
φ - Porosity, fraction
µ - Viscosity, Pa•s
Well Testing
175
Spherical Flow
General Form ∆p = bS − mS t −1 2
t
∂∆p
=t
(
∂ bS − mS t −1 2 )
Derivative
∂t ∂t
1
= mS t −1 2
2

Well Testing
176
Spherical Flow
2
Time
The spherical flow regime is recognized on the diagnostic plot by the derivative
following a negative half-slope line. The pressure change approaches a horizontal
line from below. The pressure change during spherical flow will never exhibit a
straight line with the same slope as the derivative.
Spherical flow can occur during either a drawdown or a buildup test.
- Negative ½ slope
Well Testing
177
Recognizing Flow Regimes
∆p = m At A + bA
∂∆p
t = Am At A
∂t
The pressure response for most flow regimes has a form that is linear in some power
of time.
Well Testing
178
Recognizing Flow Regimes
(
log(∆p ) = log m At A + bA ) 0
 b 
= A log(t ) + log(m A ) + log1 + A A 
 m At 
 ∂∆p 
log t  = A log(t ) + log(m A ) + log( A)
 ∂t 
The pressure response characteristic of each flow regime may be recognized on the log-log
diagnostic plot.
If bA is 0, then the pressure response for a flow regime with exponent A will be as straight line
of slope A on the log-log diagnostic plot.
If bA > 0, and if A > 0, then the pressure response will asymptotically approach a straight line
of slope A from above.
The logarithmic derivative for a flow regime with exponent A will graph as a straight line of
slope A. This line will lie parallel to the pressure response, separated by a distance log(A).
If A > 1, then the derivative response will lie above the pressure response (or its asymptote) on
the diagnostic plot.
If A = 1, the derivative and the pressure response (or its asympote) will coincide.
If A < 1, the derivative will lie below the pressure response (or its asymptote).
Because the derivative will show a straight line of slope A on the diagnostic plot whether or not
bA is 0, the derivative, rather than the pressure, should always be used to identify a given flow
regime.
Well Testing
179
Flow Regimes on the

Diagnostic Plot
Radial
flow
Wellbore
storage Spherical flow Recharge?
Elapsed time, hrs

Indication of flow regime - One of the biggest advantages of the diagnostic plot is
the ability to identify flow regimes. The slope of the derivative plot is a direct
indication of the flow regime.
Well Testing
180
Exercise 1
Flow Regimes and the Diagnostic Plot
FLOWREGM.WTD (Diagnostic Plot)
1000
100
Adjusted pressure change, psi
10
0.1
0.01
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Radial equivalent adjusted time, hr
Identify the flow regimes.

Well Testing
181
Exercise 1 Flow Regimes and the Diagnostic Plot

Solution
FLOWREGM.WTD (Diagnostic Plot)
1000
100
Adjusted pressure change, psi
10
0.1
Wellbore storage Linear flow
0.01
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved Radial equivalent adjusted time, hr

Day 4-02 - Well Testing - 1

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Well Testing

Introduction to Well Testing

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Introduction to Well Testing

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Upon completion of this section, the student should be able to:

1. List 4 major objectives of well testing.

2. Define, give the units for, and specify typical sources

3. Be able to compute the total compressibility for different reservoir systems.

Introduction To Well Testing

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What Is A Well Test?

A tool for reservoir evaluation and characterization

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How Is A Well Test Conducted?

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A well test is conducted by

Well Test Applications

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Well Test Objectives

Define reservoir limits

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• Define reservoir limits

Types of Well Tests

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Single well tests

Development of the Diffusivity Equation

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The Diffusivity Equation

Describes the flow of

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The Continuity Equation

& = (Aρv )1 − (Aρv )2

Equation of State for a Slightly Compressible

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Flow Equation - Darcy’s Law

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The Diffusivity Equation

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• The diffusivity equation is obtained by combining

• Other transient flow equations may be obtained by combining different

Data Used in Well Testing

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Formation Volume Factor

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• The formation volume factor is the volume of fluid at reservoir conditions

• Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow -- specifically, it is the ratio of the

• Source – Lab measurements, correlations

• Range and typical values

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• Compressibility is the fractional change in volume due to a unit change in

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• Porosity is the ratio of volume of pore space to bulk volume of rock.

• Range or Typical Value

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• Permeability is the measure of capacity of rock to transmit fluid.

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• Pore volume compressibility is the fractional change in porosity due to unit

• Units – psi-1, microsips

• Source – Lab measurement, correlation, guess

• Range or Typical Value

Net Pay Thickness

• Range or Typical Value