Communication | o Technical Publications reChapter Introduction to Communication System 4-1) 10 (1-30) Chapter Pulse Modulation Chapter-3 Amplitude Modulation (3-1) to (3-90) Chapter-4 __Angle Modulation (4-1) to (4-76) Chapter-5 _AM and FM Receivers (5-1)t0 (6-90) Chapter-6 _Noise (6-1)t0 (6-58) Chapter-7___Radiation and Propagation 7-1) to (7-58) Appendix A _ Introduction to TV System (A-1) to (A-34) Appendix -8 Telephony (8 - 1) to(B -30 Qral Questions with Answers P-1) to (P - 60 Solved Papers (S-1) to (S-98) Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of Pune University - 2003 Course S.E. (Electronics / E&Tc) Semester - I © Electronic Circuits and Applications Godse, Bakshi Engineering Mathematics-IIl Chitale, Kate, Tambe, Acharya, Navare, Bandewar | © Electrical Circuits and Machines Bakshi ‘= Data Structures and Files Puntambekar = Analog Communication Bakshi, Godse “Analog Communication Uday A. Bakshi M.E (Electrical) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Atul P. Godse M. S. Software Systems (BITS Pilani) B.E. Industrial Electronics Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Visit us at: Www.vtubooks.com Technical Publications Pune”im Analog Communication ISBN 9788184311778 Al ights reserved with Technical Publications. No par of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and ‘etrieval system without prior permission in writing, trom Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Assit Residency, 412, Shaniwor Peth, Pune - 411 030, India. Printers : Vikram Printers materialPreface Thanks to the professors and students for their overwhelming response to our previous books. It is a matter of great pleasure to introduce a new book covering the entire syllabus of the subject ‘Analog Communication’. The purpose of this book is to fulfil a need for a text stating in plain, lucid and simple everyday language. This book provides a logical method for explaining and it prepares very carefully a background of the topic with essential illustrations. This text is provided with number of solved problems which help students to understand the practical use of formulae derived by the mathematical analysis. All types of oral questions, alongwith variety of multiple choice questions with answers, added at the end of the book is the main feature of this book. Contents and Organisation Communication is the basic process of exchanging information. It is what people do to convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to one another. In order to become familiar with these communication systems, it is necessary to understand the basic building blocks of communication system, the concepts of noise, modulation, information theory, communication media, and various systems themselves. It also explains various methods of pulse modulation techniques such as PWM, PTM, PPM, PAM, etc. Chapter 1 is devoted for this purpose. Chapter 2 explains the generation and demodulation of PAM, PWM and PPM system, It also introduces concept of multiplexing. Chapter 3 explains the amplitude modulation technique. It also explains various terms related to amplitude modulation such as modulation index, frequency spectrum, average power, effective voltage and current, noise, non-sinusoidal modulation, modulator-demodulator circuits, and AM transmitters. Later part of this chapter is intended for single sideband communication. Various aspects of single sideband communication such as techniques for suppression of carrier, techniques of suppression of unwanted sideband, extension of SSB and their merits and demerits are discussed here. Chapter 4 explains frequency modulation theory, modulator circuits and basics of FM. transmitters. The topics such as characteristics of frequency modulation, mathematical representation, phase modulation are newly added, the tables giving comparison of F.M. and A.M., F.M. and P.M are also newly added at the end of the chapter. iyChapter 5 explains the receiver side of AM communication. It explains the basics of receiver and AM demodulating circuits required to convert AM modulated signal into the original signal. It also explains communication receiver and various enhancements in it. Later part of this chapter is devoted to F.M. receivers and the demodulator circuits. Noise is a disturbance, an unwanted signal. If the level of noise is much larger than the signal, reception becomes unreliable, reception may be totally marred by noise. The chapter 6 discusses the sources of noise and various noise terms such as signal-to-noise ratio, S/N ratio for cascade connection, noise factor, noise temperature etc. Chapter 7 explains radiation and propagation. It gives the basics of propagation of radio waves and antenna theory in a simple language. Acknowledgement We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by our whole family, We are specially grateful to the great teacher Prof. A.V. Bakshi for his time to time, much needed, valuable guidance. Without the full support and cheerful encouragement of Mrs. Varsha U. Bakshi and Mrs. Deepali A. Godse the book would not have been completed in time. Finally, we wish to thank Mr. Avinash Wani, Mr. Ravindra Wani and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get the quality printing in time. Any suggestions for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and appreciated. Authors U. A. Bakshe AP. Godse wy ee oe1.1 Evolution of Communication System... 1 1.2 Elements of Communication Systems .. 122 Transmitter 1-3 1.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum... 1.3.1 Frequency and Wavelength .... - 1.3.2 Radio Frequency . 1.3.3 Radio Frequency Spectrum ... 1.4 Types of Communication Channels... Be ‘icin 1-8 1.4.2 Parallel Wires 4-11 14.3 Coaxial Cables 4-14 14.4 Fiber-Optic Cables... . sss 1.4.5 Waveguides .........cseseeseeeeee 1.4.6 Comparison of Communication Channels... 1.5 Baseband Signals 1.6 Modulation Techniques .. ‘16.4 Need for Modulation 1.6.2 Types of Modulations . gsiateas a a 1.6.2.1 Amplitude Modulation ‘ 1-24 1.6.2.2 Frequency Modulation... = 1-25 1.6.2.3 Phase Modulation 1-251.6.2.4 Pulse Amplitude Modulaton eee 1.7 Bandwidth Requirements . University Questions... Chapter-2 Pulse Modulation 2.4.4 Sampling Process. 2.1.2 Sampling Theorem. 2.2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation ..... 2.2.2 Transmission Bandwidth of PAM Signal............. (2.2.3 Analysis and Frequency Spectrum of Naturally PAM. . 2.2.4 Analysis and Spectrum of Flat Top PAM . ‘2.25 Aperture Effect. 22 6 Reconstruction of Orginal Signlxt). 2.2.9 Classification of PAM based on Signal Polarity . 2.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 2.3.1 Generation of PWM Signal 2.3.2 Demodulation of PWM Signal | 233 Advantages of PWM. 2.3.4 Disadvantages of PWM 2.3.5 Frequency Spectrum for PWM Wave. 2.4 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) 2.4.1 Generation of PPM Signal . . 2.4.2 Demodulation of PPM Signal. 2.4.3 Advantages of PPM . 2.4.4 Disadvantages of PPM. 2.5 Comparison of PAM, PWM and PPM Syetens. TephiS OOS RRM RR EE RRS, ON? Rats SR Copyrighted material2.6 Multiplexing... 2.6.1 Types of Multiplexing . 2-28 2.6.2 Fregeuncy Dison Mutpexing (EDM) peronseerereees 2-28 2621Guard Bands 26.2.2 Transmission Bandwidth. . aig 5 2-30 2.6.2.3 Using FDM for Telephone Lines 2-30 26.2.4 Advantages of FM. 2-33 26.2.5 Disadvantages of FOM 2-33 2.6.2.6 Applications of FOM 2-33 2.6.3 Time Division Multiplexing (TOM)... ss 2698 2.6.3.1 Time Division Muliplexed PAM Signal 2-38 26.32 Cinsstale 0a 2.6.3.3 Comparison of FOM and TOM 2-37 26.3.4 Transmission Bandwidth ofaTDMChannel 2.6.3.5 Advantages of TOM. 2-39 2.6.3.6 Disadvantages of TOM 2-39 Review Questions i ssssssssssttsssstinsssnsssnnssscsssansrssssssassssssssssasssssssssrssanee 2 39 University Questions... 2-40 Chapter-3 Amplitude Modulation (3-1) to (3-90) 3.1 Amplitude Modulation ... 3-1 3.1.4 Expression for AM ........00.000005 vocvceuvevtvevevevseees Sat 3.4.2 Frequency Spectrum .. 3-3 3.1.3 Modulation Index ..... ia 3-4 3.1.4 Power Relations in Sinusoidal AM . . Saeeven 3-5 3.1.5 Effective Voltage and Current for Sinusoidal AM . semen res ee BD 3.1.6 Representation of AM Wave............... es sees eae Sens LIRA 3-12 3.1.6.1 Frequency Domain 3-12 3.1.6.2 Time Domain . . . 3-12 3.1.6.3 Calculating the Modulation index using AM Wave 3-13 3.1.6.4 Concept of Overmodulation. 3-16 3.1.6.5 Trapezoidal Display of AM Wave. s 3-16 3.1.6.6 Trapezoidal Displays for Overmodulated and Distorted AM Waves 3-17 (iy3.2.2 High Level Modulation... 0... eevee eee sneer B22 3.23 Campaaonbelvesn Low Laval and High Level Mouton. disieaissseimisin ds BARE 3.24.Low Level ModulatorsiNoninear Modulators 0g 3.2.4.1 Square-Law Modulator... ss 5 2 a 2 3-23 3.2.42 Switching Modulator : 5 preeereaereeareeee Saae 3.2.5 High Level Modulators . . . 3-26 3.25.1 Basic Requirements . — . 3-26 27 Nd tater Chen aE 3.3. AM Transmitters... 3.4 Types of AM Transmitters. 3.4.4 Suppression of Carrier to Generate DSB-SC. 3.4.4.1 Balanced Modulator using Diodes. =. se 342 3.4.4.2 Balanced Modulator using FETS... 2... + aama seem 2. 34d 3.4.4.3 Balanced ModulatorIC. . . Peas cane as SoM? 3.4.5 Suppression of Unwanted Sideban o Generate SSB-SC 3.4.5.1 Filer Method 3.4.5.2 Phase-Shift Method. a 3453 Third Method ©... 3.4.6 Independent Sideband Systems 3.4.7 Vestigial Sideband Transmission . . . 3.4.8 Frequency Domain Description 3.4.9 Generation of VSB Modulated Wave . 3.4.10 Demodulation of VSB Modulated Wave . 3-48 ce 3649 fig ties 3-50 3-52 3-57 ets ar EYSolved Examples .. 2 henley Cpe thas i aaccansnssscnncnnnssntnnnasssancnninnnnnnnnsssennesasen d= 70 University Questions . 3-71 Chapter-4 Angle Modulation (4-1) to (4-76) 4.1 Basic Concepts ... i or 4.2 Mathematical Analysis of FM using Sinusoidal Signal.. i 4.3 Mathematical Analysis of PM using Sinusoidal Signal. we Beg 4.4 Mathematical Treatment as Applied to General Non-sinusoidal Signals . 14-4 4.5 Characteristics of Frequency Modulatior -4-8 4.5.1 Modulation Index . .. sithe Samer . — 4-8 (A Dee ec ea ARS Dheranei n iceiccninacesaiimce hel 4.6 Frequency Spectrum of FM Wave 4-11 4.7 Bandwidth Requirements... 4.8 Wide and Narrowhand FM. Transmission. = 16 4.9 Comparison of FM and PM System .. 4.10 Frequency Modulators ... 4.10.2 Typical Reactance Modulator... ... pian eae ier ea. 4.10.3 Transistor Reactance Modulator 0 a 4.10.4 Frequency Modulation with Varactor Diode . . . ‘i ec 4.11 Directly Modulated FM Transmitter 4.11.1 Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) - 4.11.2 Effect of Heterodyning and Multiplication on FM Wave... 4-30 4.12.1 Basic Circuit of Audio Equalizer 4-35 4.12.2 Basic Principle of PM Generation . 4-8 4.12.3 Armstrong Method of F.M........ 4-37 4.13 Pre-Emphasis .. 4.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of FM 5 SORE IO DERE SO EAN4.15 Comparison of FM and AM Systems .. Solved Examples .... 4-42 4-43 Review lestions 4-5¢ University Questions .. 1. 4-51 Chapter-5 AMandFMReceivers (5-4) to (5-90) 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Functions of Receiver 5.3 AM and FM Receivers ... 7 5:3.1 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver . wee seeeteeeeees DOF 5.3.2 Problems in TRF Receivers 5.3.3 Superhetorodine REOONO RS sooo sees eh eee eee eeee es 5-3 SAN Selectivity... oso tienes eee ee steer eee 5.4.2 Sensitivity wee Ee se 5.4.4 Image Frequency and its Rejection ........................ 5.4.5 Double Spotting ..... 5.5 Superheterodyne Receiver ... §.5.1 RF Amplifier............. = 5.5.2 Mixer or Frequency Converter . . 5.5.3 Tracking 5.5.4 Local Oscillator x . son ees . on 5.5.5 Intermediate Frequency Amplifier... 0.0.0... .ceeeseereeeeeeeeseeeeeeer sees 5.5.6 Choice of Intermediate Frequency . . 5.5.7 Adjacent Channel Selectivity 5.5.8 Automatic Gain Control (AGC). . . 55.8.1 Simple AGC. . 5.5.8.2 Delayed AGC 5.5.9 De-emphasis: 5.6 AM Detection ...... 5.6.1 Envelope Detector... ..ecceceeveseeeeeeee“5.64 SSB Receiver. co ee BS 5651S Receiver. ; es 58.6 Communication (Double Conversion) Receiver... a ‘SZ7EMReceiver 8 89 58.1 RF. Amplifier Stage... se 5-40 5.8.2 Mixer Stage 5.8.3 LF. Amplifier Stage 6.11 Capture Effect 5.12 FM Stereo System. Solved Copyrighted materialChapter -6 Noise (6-1) to (6-58) 6.2.3 Types of Internal Noise............ Deeenses sere ere sent neenesoesesenes O98 @3WhiteNoise 6.4 Types of Noise... 6.4.1 Thermal of Thermal Agitation or Johnson Noise se 3 G42ShotNoise 64.3 Partition Noise 6-8 6.4.4 Low Frequency of Flicker Noise 6.45 High Frequency or Transit Time Noise... 6.5.2 Reactance and Equivalent Noise Bandwidth . . 6-10 6.5.3 Equivalent Noise Resistance . . pai: 6-12 6.54 Note Dus to Several Ampilersin Cascade .. oman wanes OS 6.6 Signal to Noise Ratio .... 6.6.1 Effect of Amplification on S/N Ratio. . .. 6.6.2 Effect of Cascade Connection on S/N Ratio. . 6.7.4 Noise Factor in Terms of R. 6.7.2 Amplifier Input Noise in Terms of F 6.7.3 Cascade Connection of Amplifiers (Fris's Formula) . 6.8 Noise Temperature . 6.9 Noise in AM Systems..... 6.91 Signal-to-Noise Ratios... 6.92 Noise in AM Receivers using Envelope Detection.6.12 Noise in FM Receivers... 6-33 Solved Examples 6-39 Classe Chath 6-48 Unsolved Examples 6-46 University Questions 6-47 Chapter-7 Radiation and Propagation ~ (7-1) to (7-58) 7.1 Concept of Radiation and Basic Antenna System .... er | 7.1.1 Concept of Radiation and Basic Antenna System ene : 7-1 7.1.2 Radiation Pattem of Antenna ear) 7.1.3 Directional Antenna System .. si 175 TAA Dipole Antenna oo... eee ceecseceeeeeeeseecsseessessesesseeseee 7940 7.4.5 Antenna Impedance ........ voce veevseeeeeevesesseeseeses TH48 7.1.6 Marconi Antenna (:] 7.1.7 Ferrite Rod Receiving Antenna 7.1.8 Yagi Antenna . 7.2 Concepts of Propagation of Radio Waves 7.3 Mechanism of Propagations .... we 7-25 7.3.1 Ground Wave Propagation we 78 7.3.1.1. Propagation Characteristics at Broadcast Frequencies [ 535 kHz to 1605KHz] .. . 7-28 7.3.2 Sky Wave Propagation . voeceeeeeeees 7.32.1 Relations between Oblique and Vertical Incidence Transmission ‘ 7-34 7.3.2.2 Multiple Hop Transmission... 7-36 7.32.3 Propagation Characteristics at Short Waves . 7637 7.3.3 Line-of-Sight (Space Wave) Propagation... vecceeeceesteeeereee 7287 7.3.3.1 Mutipath Space Wave Propagation. stews eeeme rams TBO 7.33.2 Radio Horizon... . . Pion s eoiaid © umn 7-39 7.3.3.3 Shadowing Effects of Hills and Buildings 5 weisws Dall 7.3.3.4 Miscellaneous Considerations in Space Wave Propagation... . . 782 7.3.4 Duet Propagation ........... eae Maes ee ceeee etc Pe 75 titi beret. 7-45 7.36 Extraterrestrial Propagation ......7.4 Concept of Fading... was oAT 74.1 Fading..........5 asohionaead ane weldeilinenennnemienieet enemies TEED 7.5 Diversity Reception Sislams .7-49 Review Question: .7-50 University Questions . 7-51 Appendix-A Introduction to TV System (A-1) to (A- 34) Pak Te i i a a oc casa A111 Sound Transmission A-4 A12 Picture Transmission Ast A.1.3 Scanning Process 2 3 A-2 A14 TV Camera .. Kamran peau mantic AD. A.1.5 Picture Reception .. : — A-4 Ai BSound Recopion! ocisiaauecuate earner ames ALE. A.1.7 Synchronization........... ~eTRMRETIMeMaasecs ASB {18 Complete TV Transmission Recepon Sytem. . seemumeagece AB. A.1.9 Important Term: i A-8 A1.10 VSB for TV Broadcasting............6.0e0c0eeee nesierajooralend tons ASM A1.11 Vestigial Sideband Correction at Receiver... 5.5.0 ..00 0000 ceveseeseeseees A228 A.2 Colour Television wA-27 A.3 High Definition Television. aaa 7 A-31 lie Chua oi Appendix - B Telephony (B- 1) to (B - 30) B.1 Principles of Telephony... B.2 Telephone Transmitter and Receiver... B.2.1 Telephone Transmitter. B.2.2 Telephone Receiver B.3 Side Tone B.4 Necessity for Telephone Exchange B.4.1 Working of Telephone Exchange. . .. B.4.2 Functions of Telephone Exchange ....... 26... .c seen eeeeseeeeee encesB.4.3 Classification of Telephone Exchanges. B.5 Tones in Telephony ...... BSAOTOG eve rnrsicdur sions esnnca B.5.2 Ringing Tone . B.5.3 Busy Tone . eae B.5.4 Number Unobtainable Tone .............+5 B.6 Automatic Exchange : Strowger System... B.7 Pulsed and DTMF Dialing 8.7.1 Pulsed Dialing 8.7.2 DTMF Dialing. . 8.7.3 Comparison of Pulse and DTMF Dialing . B.8 Electronic Telephone Exchanges.. B.8.1 Services Available to Subscribers of Electronic Exchange Subscribers os B13 B.9 E 10 B Electronic Exchange .. B.9.1 Units of Electronic Exchange........ B.10 Comparison of Electronic eeetarigai with Electromechanical Exchange (Strowger Exchange)... B.11 Teleprinters ....... B.11.1 Operation of Teleprinter. B.11.2 Operation of Receiver B.11.3 Teleprinter Code . ee £114 Funcionl Keys used on he TelerintrKeybosd 5 B-26 B.11.5 Speed of Teleprinter .........sesscesesseeseseseeseeesseeseeneeenss BodB Points to Remember. University Questions... omIntroduction to Communication System 1.1 Evolution of Communication System The field of electronics can be roughly classified into three major classes : computers, communications, and control. The computer field is the youngest of the three, while communications industry is the oldest, since electronics really started with radio communications. The communication is concerned with electronic equipment used for the transfer of information between two or more points. That information may be voice, television pictures, computer data, or some other form of electronic information. Communication is the basic process of exchanging information. It is what people do to convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to one another. People have been communicating with one another from the beginning of humankind. As soon as new infant is born, it starts crying and starts communicating with its mother. Most humans communicate through spoken word, yet a considerable amount of communication is nonverbal. Body movements and facial expressions are effective communication tools. People write letters for communication. Although the bulk of human communication today is still oral, a large volume of information is exchanged by means of the written word, may be in the form of letters, newspaper, books etc. In the beginning, communication over long distances posed the problem. Most human communication in the beginning was limited to face-to-face communication (conversation). However, long distance communication was attempted by blowing a horn, lighting a signal fire, or waving a flag. But despite these long distance communication attempts, transmission distances were limited. Long distance communication was extended by the written word. Messages and letters were transported from one place to another by human runner, horseback, ship, and later by trains. The communication took a dramatic turn in the late nineteenth century when electricity was discovered. The telegraph was invented in 1844 and the telephone in 1876. Radio was demonstrated in 1895. From this point, the exchange of information took a great leap in forward direction. Marconi demonstrated transatlantic radio a.Analog Communication 1-2 Introduction to Communication System transmission in 1901. Television was invented in 1923, while the colour TV began in 1954. The first communication satellite was launched in 1962. The best forms of electronic communication, such as radio and television, have increased our ability to share information. Today they form the major part of our lives. In today’s world, there are number of modern communication system in use, which include radio telephony and telegraphy, broadcasting, point to point and mobile communications, radio telemetry and so on. In order to become familiar with these communication systems, it is necessary to understand the basic building blocks of communication system, the concepts of noise, modulation, information theory, communication , and various systems themselves. The following section introduces the basic building blocks of communication systems and important concepts related to the communication systems. 1.2 Elements of Communication Systems Any electronic communication system can be represented in its basic form, as shown in the Fig. 1.1 ‘Communication ‘channel or medium Fig. 1.1 Block diagram of communication system The basic components of communication systems are transmitter, a communication channel or medium, and a receiver. Noise is inherently present in the channel or medium. It gets added to the information being communicated. The elements of communication system are as follows : ¢ Information « Transmitter * Communication Channel or Medium + Noise * Receiver 1.2.1 Information ‘The communication systems communicate messages. The message comes from the information sources. The two main sources of information are the ideas emanatingAnalog Communication 1-3 Introduction to Communication System from the human brain and changes in any physical environment. Jt may contain human voice, picture, code, data, music and their combinations. The amount of information contained in any given message is measured in bits or dits. To have a better communication system, selective, but all information must be communicated with no redundancy since we know no real information can be conveyed by a redundant message. 1.2.2 Transmitter The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium, Most of the times message that comes from information source is non-electrical and therefore it is not suitable for immediate transmission. Such messages need to be coded or processed before transmission and also require suitable transducers to convert them into electrical signals. The built-in circuitry such as decoders, encoders, transducers, etc. in the transmission makes incoming information suitable for transmission and subsequent reception. The most of the transmitters have built-in amplifier circuits. These circuits amplify the incoming nals (information) before transmission which help in faithful reception of the transmitted information at the receiver end. 1.2.3 Communication Channel The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is traysmitted from one place to another. The communication medium can be a pair of conducting wire, coaxial cable, optical fibre cable or free space. Depending on the type of communication medium the communication system can be classified as, * Wire communication or Line communication, * Wireless communication or Radio communication. 41) Line Communication In its simplest form, the medium may simply be a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to another. The common examples are telegraphy and telephony, where actually two physical wires or conductors are run between the transmitter and receiver. Now-a-days, the communication medium for telephony is a fiber-optic cable, carrying the message on a light wave. The coaxial cables are preferred over a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to other. They provide greater bandwidth, lower losses and much lower crosstalk. The fiber optic cable is a logical extension of coaxial cable, which allows high operating frequencies and provides even greater bandwidths. Optical fibers are used for light and infrared transmissions. An optic fiber is a piece of very thin, highly pure glass, with an outside cladding of glass that is similarAnalog Communication 1 4 Introduction to Communication System but, because of a slightly different chemical composition, has a different refractive index. This is known as a step index fiber, with a core diameter in the range of 2 to 200 um. The communication system with fiber optic cables are virtually immune to crosstalk and electromagnetic interference, unlike coaxial cables. They are also cheaper than systems with coaxial cables. 2) Radio Communication Radio is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless communication between two points. Radio communication is a wireless communication, requiring no physical wires between transmitter and receiver to carry the signal; on the contrary, the signal is sent through free space or air. Radio communication essentially requires two antennas, one at transmitting end and the other at the receiving end. Using transmitting antenna, the transmitter transmits the signal, over a carrier wave, into the free space. The receiver picks up the signal by means of receiving aerial and separates the signal from the carrier. The medium attenuates the signal and causes it to appear much lower in amplitude at the receiver. Considerable amplification of the signal, both at the transmitter and the receiver, becomes essential for successful communication. Radio communication makes possible communication over very very long distances, even from earth to moon. 1.2.4 Noise Noise is random, undesirable electric energy that enters the communication system via the medium and interferes with the transmitted message. Some noise is also produced in the receiver. Noise can be either natural or man-made. Natural noise includes noise produced in nature, e.g. from lighting during rainy season, or noise due to radiations produced by the sun and the other stars. Man-made noise is the noise produced by electric ignition systems of cars, electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc. Noise is one of the serious problems of electronic communication. It cannot be completely eliminated. However, there are ways to deal with noise, and reduce the possibility of degradation of signal due to noise. 1.2.5 Receiver A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the original information. It consists of amplifier, detector, mixer, oscillator, transducer and so on. 1.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum In wireless communication, electromagnetic waves are used as a media of transfer of information. Thus in such a communication, the information signal is converted into the electromagnetic signal before transmission. The electromagnetic waves consist ofAnalog Communication 1-5 Introduction to Communication System nm = nanometer, A= angstrom, jum = micrometer, mm = millimeter, em = centimeter, m =meter, km = kilometer, Mm = Megameter. Fig. 1.2 The electromagnetic spectrum Copyrighted materialAnalog Communication 1-6 Introduction to Communication System both electric and magnetic fields and they can travel a long distance through space. The range of all possible frequencies of EM waves is called the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The Fig. 1.2 shows the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum, shown in the Fig. 1.2 extends from just below the frequencies used for modern radio (at the long-wavelength end) to gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength end), covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometres down to fractions of the size of an atom. It is commonly said that EM waves beyond these limits are uncommon, although this is not actually true. In our universe the short wavelength limit is likely to be the Planck length, and the long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, though in principle the spectrum is infinite 1.3.1 Frequency and Wavelength + The frequency is defined as the number of cycles of a waveform per second. It is expressed in Hertz. «© Wavelength is defined as the distance travelled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle. Electromagnetic energy at a particular wavelength has an associated frequency f and photon energy E. Thus, the electromagnetic spectrum may be expressed equally, well in terms of any of these three quantities. They are related according to the equations : wave speed (c) = frequency x wavelength or aeg and E = hf or E = he/a where : cis the speed of light = 300,000 km/s h is Plank’s constant = 4.13567 peV/GHz So, high-frequency electromagnetic waves have a short wavelength and high energy; low-frequency waves have a long wavelength and low energy. When light waves (and other electromagnetic waves) enter a medium, their wavelength is reduced. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they are travelling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength, although this is not always explicitly stated. ‘The higher frequencies we use specific symbols to represent frequency in hertz. The Table 1.1 gives the list of symbols and their relation with the basic unit hertz.Analog Communication 1-7 Introduction to Communication System Symbol Meaning ion with [ie 1 Kilo hertz 1000 Hz (10° Hz) | 1 MHz 1 Mega hertz 41000 000 Hz (10° Hz) | 1 GHz 1 Giga hertz 1000 000 000 Hz (10° Hz) | 1TH 1 Tera hertz 1000 000 000 000 Hz (10'? Hz) | 1 PHe 1 Peta hetz 1000 000 000 900 000 Hz (10'S Hz) | 1 Hz 1 Exa hetz 1000 000 060 000 000 090'H2 (10" Hz) | Table 1.1 Symbol used to denote higher frequencies 1.3.2 Radio Frequency Radio frequency, or RF, refers to that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in which electromagnetic waves can be generated by alternating current fed to an antenna. Such frequencies and the belonging wavelength account for the following parts of the spectrum shown in the Table 1.2. ‘The radio frequency range is divided by the ITU (International, Telecommunication Unit) into a number of bands of frequencies, where all frequencies in the band exhibit similar properties. The bands are ELF, VF, VLF LF, MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF. 1.3.3 Radio Frequency Spectrum The Table 1.2 shows the radio frequency spectrum and its applications according to various frequency bands. Band name | Abbr | ITU | Frequency Wavelength Applications band Extremely fow eLF | 1 | 3-30Hz | 100,000 km - 10,000 km] Communication with frequency ‘submarines Super ow frequency] SLF | 2 | 30-300Hz | 10,000 km- 1000 km | Communication with submarines Uttra low frequency | ULF | 3 | 300-3000 Hz] 1000 km - 100 km — | Communication within mines Very low frequency | VLF | 4 | 3-30 kHz 100 km - 10 km ‘Submarine avalanche beacons, wireless heart rate monitors, geophysics Low frequency LF | 5 | 30-300 kHz 10 KM = 1 km Navigation, time signals, AM longwave broadcastingAnalog Communication 1-8 Introduction to Communication System Medium frequency ‘AM (Medium-wave) broadcasts High frequency ‘Shortwave broadcasts, amateur radio and ‘over-the-horizon aviation ‘commuaications Very high frequency | VHF | 8 | 30 - 300 MHz 10m-1m FM, television broadcasts and line-of-sight ground-to-aircraft and aircratt-to-aircraft ‘communications Ultra high frequency | UHF | 9 | 300 - 3000 1m - 100 mm Television broadcasts, MHz mobile phones, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, and ‘Two-Way Radios such as FRS and GMRS Radios ‘Super high SHF | 10 | 3-30GHz 100 mm- 10 mm | Microwave devices, wireless LAN, most modern Radars Extremely high EHF | 11 | 30 - 300 GHz 10 mm = 1 mm Radio astronomy, frequency high-speed microwave radio relay Table 1.2 1.4 Types of Communication Channels We have seen that the communication channel is a media over which the information signal travels from the transmitter to receiver. There are various types of communication channels. These are : * Transmission lines * Parallel wires * Coaxial cable © Optical-fiber cable © Waveguides 1.4.1 Transmission Lines A transmission line is the material, medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place to another for directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves, as well as electric power transmission.Analog Communication 1-9 Introduction to Communication System Components of transmission lines include wires, coaxial cables, dielectric slabs, optical fibres, electric power lines, and waveguides. Concept As an example, the Fig. 1.3 shows the transmission line used to transfer the output RF energy of a transmitter to an antenna. Here, the transmission line has a single purpose for both the transmitter and the antenna. This purpose is to transfer the energy output of the transmitter to the antenna with the least possible power loss. How well this is done depends on the special physical and electrical characteristics (impedance and resistance) of the transmission line. All transmission lines have two ends. The end of a two-wire transmission line connected to a source is ordinarily called the INPUT END or the GENERATOR END. Other names given to this end are TRANSMITTER END, SENDING END, and SOURCE. The other end of the line is called the OUTPUT END or RECEIVING END. Other names given to the output end are LOAD END and SINK. Transmission Input a line Fig. 1.3 Basic transmission line We can describe a transmission line in terms of its impedance. The ratio of voltage to current (E,,/Ij,) at the input end is known as the INPUT IMPEDANCE (Z,,). This is the impedance presented to the transmitter by the transmission line and its load, the antenna. The ratio of voltage to current at the output (Ejus/Iju) end is known as the OUTPUT IMPEDANCE (Z,,,). This is the impedance presented to the load by the transmission line and its source. Equivalent Circuit The Fig. 1.4 shows the typical equivalent circuit of a transmission line. It represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing a short segment of the transmission line :Analog Communication 1-410 Introduction to Communication System * The distributed resistance R of the conductors is represented by a series resistor (expressed in ohms per unit length) * The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field around the wires, self-inductance, etc.) is represented by a series inductor (henries per unit length). * The capacitance C between the two conductors is represented by a shunt capacitor C (farads per unit length). «The conductance G of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is represented by a conductance G shunted between the signal wire and the retum wire (siemens per unit length). L R L 6599 WW | O80 “Ty aoaeee / Ln Conductors c i 6 oc 3 s impedance Fig. 1.4 Typical equivalent circuit of transmission line Characteristics Impedance (Z,) If the transmission line is uniform along its length, then its behaviour is largely described by a single parameter called the characteristic impedance, symbol Z). This is the ratio of the complex voltage of a given wave to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical values of Z, are 50 or 75 ohms for a coaxial cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of wires, and about 300 ohms for a common type of untwisted pair used in radio transmission. The characteristics impedance of transmission line is given by Zy = A where L = inductance in henries and © = Capacitance in Farads Propagation Constant (:) ‘The propagation constant of a transmission line is given by y = a+jPp = (R+joL) (G+joC)Analog Communication 1-11 Introduction to Communication System where a, the real part, is the attenuation of the signal in transmission line and fi, imaginary part, is the phase change of the signal in the transmission line. When sending power down a transmission line, it is usually desirable that all the power is absorbed by the load and none of it is reflected back to the source. This can be ensured by making the source and load impedances equal to Zy, in which case the transmission line is said to be matched, ie. Z, = Zo. Some of the power that is fed into a transmission line is lost because of its resistance. This effect is called ohmic or resistive loss. At high frequencies, another effect called dielectric loss becomes significant, adding to the losses caused by resistance. Dielectric loss is caused when the insulating material inside the transmission line absorbs energy from the alternating electric field and converts it to heat. The total loss of power in a transmission line is often specified in decibels per metre, and usually depends on the frequency of the signal. 1.4.2 Parallel Wires There are seven types of parallel wire transmission line. «Two wire line type cable * Two wire flat type cable «Twisted pair type cable * Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) type cable + Shielded twisted pair (STP) type cable + Screened shielded twisted pair (S/STP) type cable * Screened unshielded twisted pair (S/UTP) type cable Two Wire Line Type The Fig. 1.5(a) shows the two parallel wires separated by insulating spacers. Conductors — ———— Conductors (a) Two wire line type cable (b) Two wire flat type cable ‘Spacers Fig. 1.5Analog Communication 1 12 Introduction to Communication System ‘The Fig. 1.5 (b) shows the two wire flat type cable. It is used to connect the output of Yagi-Uda TV antenna to the TV set. Both two wire type cables are simple in construction, cheap and easy to install. The two wire line type can carry more power. Both cables are susceptable for electromagnetic noise and they have high radiation losses. Twisted Pair Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which two conductors are wound together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference from external sources and crosstalk from neighboring wires. The Fig. 1.6 shows the twisted pair. ‘Twisting wires decrease interference, since the loop area between the wires (which determines the magnetic coupling into the signal) is reduced. Often the two wires carry equal and opposite signals (differential mode) which are combined by subtraction at the destination. The noise from the two wires cancel each other in this subtraction because the two wires have been exposed to similar electromagnetic interference The twist rate (usually defined in twists per meter) makes up part of the specification for a given type of cable. The greater the number of twists, the greater the attenuation of crosstalk. Conductors insulation Twisted wires. Fig. 1.6 Twisted pair ‘Twisted pair cables were first used in telephone systems by Bell in 1881 and by 1900 the entire American network was twisted pair. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to fiber and coaxial cabling. Cable Shielding Twisted pair cables are often shielded to prevent electromagnetic interference. Because the shielding is made of metal, it also serves as a ground. This shielding can be applied to individual pairs, or to the collection of pairs. When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is referred to as screening. The shielding must be grounded for the shielding to work.Analog Communication 1-13 ure Conductor Insulation Pair Sheath Fig. 1.7 Unshielded twisted pair st Conductor ® &— ~ es oa Pair shield ws Fig. 1.8 Shielded twisted pair ‘SiSTP Fig. 1.9 Screened shielded twisted pair Introduction to Communication System Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) UTP cables are not shielded. This lack of shielding results in a high degree of flexibility as well as rugged durability. UTP cables are found in many ethernet networks and telephone systems. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) STP cabling includes metal shielding over each individual pair of copper wires. This type of shielding protects cable from external EMI (electromagnetic interferences) eg. the 150 ohm shielded twisted pair cables defined by the IBM Cabling System specifications and used with token ring networks. Screened Shielded Twisted Pair (S/STP) S/STP cabling, also known as Screened Fully Shielded Twisted Pair (S/FTP), is both individually shielded (like STP cabling) and also has an outer metal shielding covering the entire group of shielded copper pairs (like $/UTP). This type of cabling offers the best protection form interference from external sources.Analog Communication 1-14 _ Introduction to Communication System Screened Unshielded Twisted Pair (S/UTP) S/UTP known as Fully Shielded (or foiled) Twisted Pair (FTP) is a screened UTP cable. SIUTP - FTP - SIFTP Conductor Insulation Pair Sheath Shield Fig. 1.10 Screened unshielded twisted pair, foiled twisted pair, screened foiled twisted pair 1.4.3 Coaxial Cables The coaxial cables are preferred over a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to other. They provide greater bandwidth, lower losses and much lower crosstalk. They are used as a high-frequency transmission line to carry a high-frequency or broad band signal ‘The coaxial cable system consists of a tube carrying a number of coaxial cables together with repeaters and other ancillary equipment. Separate cables are used for the two directions of transmission and a pair of spare cables is also provided for protection in case of failure. The number of cables per tube may be as low as four in smaller systems or as high as 22 in major systems as shown in Fig. 1.11. The typical number of channels per cable varies from 600 in a 3-MHz system to 3600 in an 18-MHz system. ‘The coaxial cable consists of a solid-center conductor surrounded by a plastic insulator such as Teflon. Over the insulator is a second conductor, a tabular braid or shield made of fine wire, as shown in Fig. 1.11. An outer sheath protects and insulates the braid. Because the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists (ideally) only in the space between the inner and outer conductors, it cannot interfere with or suffer interference from external electromagnetic fields. Coaxial cables may be rigid or flexible. Rigid types have a solid sheath, while flexible types have a braided sheath, both usually of thin copper wire. The inner insulator, also called the dielectric, has a significant effect on the cable's properties, such as its characteristics impedance and its attenuation.Analog Communication 1-15 Introduction to Communication System (Fine-wire braid shield) ‘Outer conductor ‘Outer plastic insulation Foil Teflon or plastic insulation Solid copper inner conductor Fig. 1.11 Important Parameters * In coaxial cable the characteristic impedance in ohms (Q) is calculated from the ratio of the inner and outer diameters and the dielectric constant. Assuming the dielectric properties of the material inside the cable do not vary appreciably over the operating range of the cable, this impedance is frequency independent. * Attenuation or loss, in decibels per metre is dependent on the loss in the dielectric material filling the cable, and resistive losses in the center conductor and shield. These losses are frequency dependent, the losses becoming higher as the frequency increases. © In co-axial cable velocity of propagation depends on the type of dielectric used. ‘Standards Most coaxial cables have a characteristic impedance of either 50, 52, 75, or 93 2. The RF industry uses standard type-names for coaxial cables. Applications * Short coaxial cables are commonly used to connect home video equipment, in ham radio setups, and in measurement electronics. * Long distance coaxial cable is used to connect radio networks and television networks, though this has largely been superseded by other more high-tech methods (fibre optics, T1/E1, satellite). It still carries cable television signals to the majority of television receivers. © Micro coaxial cables are used in a range of consumers devices, military equipment, and also in ultra-sound scanning equipment.Analog Communication 1-16 Introduction to Communication System 1.4.4 Fiber-OpticsCables Fiber-optic cables are used for light and infrared transmissions. They carry light rather than electrical signals. The two most commonly used light sources in fiber optic systems are LEDs and semiconductor lasers. A fiber-optic cable is a long thin strand of glass or plastic fiber. Most fiber cables have a circular cross section with a diameter of only a fraction of an inch. Some fiber-optic cables only have a diameter the size of a human hair. A light source is placed at the end of the fiber, and light passes through it and exits at the other end of the cable. The fiber-optic cable can carry information such as voice, video and computer data. Voice and video signals are converted into binary or digital pulses before being transmitted by a light beam. At the receiving end the light beam is converted into binary or digital pulses and then into original voice or video signals. ’-—— Water blocking yarn Dielectric CSM Loose buffer tube Optical fiber ‘Water blocking tape Water blocking tape — — Dielectric strength member Fig. 1.12 The fiber-optic cables are mainly used in telephone systems. The main advantage of these cables is that they provide large bandwidth. The bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies which a cable will carry. The communication system with fiber optic cables are interference, unlike coaxial cables. They are also cheaper than systems with coaxial cables. Fiber-optics cables are smaller, lighter and stronger than electric cables. The Table 1.3 summarizes the benefits of fiber-optic cables over conventional electrical cables.Analog Communication 1-47 Introduction to Communication System No. Benefit 1 Wider bandwidth : Higher information carrying capability. 2 Lower loss : Less signal attenuation over long distance. 3 Light weight : Useful where low weight is critical ie. aircraft 4 ‘Small size : More cables can be placed in a smaller place. 5 Strength : More stronger than electrical cables and hence can support more weight. 6. Security : Fiber-optic cables cannot be tapped as easily as electrical cables, and they do not radiate signals 7. Interference immunity : Fiber-optic cables do not radiate signals as some electrical cables do and cause interference to other cables. They are also immune to pick-up of interference from other sources. 8 Greater safety : Fiber-optic cables do not carry electricity. Therefore, there is no shock hazard. They are also insulators so are not susceptible to lightning strikes as electrical cables. Table 1.3 Table 1.4 summarises the applications of fiber-optic cables. No. Applications 1 Local and long-distance telephone systems, 2 For transmission of video signal from TV studio to transmitter, eliminating microwave radio link. 3 Used in close-circuit TV systems. 4 ‘Secure communication systems at military bases. 5 Used in wide area and local area computer networks. 6. Shipboard and aircraft communications and controls. 7 Interconnection of measuring and monitoring instruments in industries and laboratories. 8. Used in data aquisition systems and industrial process control systems for signal communication Table 1.4 Disadvantages of Fiber-OpticsaCable 1. Optical fibers are very costly. 2. Optical fibers can not be joined together as easily as copper conductor. 3. The maintenance is expensive.Analog Communication 1-18 Introduction to Communication System 1.4.5 Waveguides Similar to the transmission lines, waveguides are also used to guide electromagnetic waves from one point to other ie. from source to load. A waveguide is considered as a special case of the transmission line. In general, waveguides are hollow conducting tubes having uniform cross-section. The most commonly used waveguides are rectangular waveguide and circular waveguide as shown in the Fig. 1.13. Eventhough a waveguide is a special case of a transmission line, there are some notable differences between the two. Firstly, the transmission line can support only transverse electromagnetic wave (TEM wave), while a waveguide can support many different possible field configurations. Secondly, a transmission line becomes inefficient at microwave frequencies (3-300 GHz) due to skin effect and dielectric losses. But waveguide is used at that same range of frequencies to achieve larger bandwidth and lower signal attenuation. Lastly a transmission line may operate from dc. (frequency = 0) to a very high frequency. While a waveguide can not transmit d.c. Wave propagation Rectangul: 2 = (b) Circular Fig. 1.13 Waveguide The Fig. 1.14 shows how the EM waves travel through a waveguide. The EM waves undergo multiple reflections at the sides of waveguide while travelling from one end to the other. They can not travel in a straight line. Fig. 1.14 How EM waves travel thrugh waveguideAnalog Communication 41-19 Introduction to Communication System Advantages of Waveguides 1. High frequency communication upto 325 GHz is possible using waveguides 2. Large surface area of waveguid 3. In waveguides, radiation losses are low, 4. Waveguides have large power handling capacity. Disadvantages 1, Low’ frequency communication is not possible using waveguid es reduces copper losses s because the size of waveguides at low frequency becomes very high. They are difficult to install because of its rigidness and hollow shape. 3. The cost of entire waveguide and related equipment is comparatively high 4. The absolute efficiency of waveguide is low. 1.4.6 Comparison of Communication Channels Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable 1 Uses electrical signal for transmission, Uses electrical signal for transmission. Uses optical signal for transmission 2 Provides low noise immunity. Provides higher noise immunity than twisted pair. Provides highest noise immunity as the light rays are unaffected by the electrical noise. 3. | Affected due to elgcro-magnetic field Less affected due to elecromagnetic field. Does not get affected by electromagnetic field 4 Provides low bandwidth typically 3 to 4 MHz. Provides high bandwidth typically 300 to 400 MHz. Provides very high bandwidth typically 2 to 3 GHz. 5. | Possibility of short Possibility of short No possibility of short circuit betwen two circuit between two circuit conductors. conductors. 6. | Low cost. Medium cost. High cost. 7. | Supports iow data rates.| Support medium data | Support high data rates. rates. 8. | Power loss is due to | Power loss is due to | Power loss is due to ‘conduction and conduction absorption, scattering, radiation, dispersion and bending.Analog Communication 1-20 _ Introduction to Communication System 1.5 Baseband Signals Although digital transmission can be made up of signal that originated in digital form, such as computer data; analog signals can be converted into digital form and then transmitied. Regardless of whether the original information signals are analog or digital, they are all referred to as “baseband signals”. In a communication system, the original information signals (baseband signals) may be transmitted over the medium Putting the original signal directly into the medium is referred to as “baseband transmission”. The common example is telephony, especially for the local calls, Here the voice signal, converted into electrical form, is placed on the wires and transt fed over some distance to the receiver. In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial cables for transmission to another computer. Limitations of Baseband Transmission There are many instances when the baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium. For example, voice signals cannot travel longer distances in air, the signal gets attenuated rapidly. Hence for transmission of baseband signals by radio, modulation technique has to be used. 1.6 Modulation Techniques In the modulation process, the base band signal (such as voice, video, ete.) modifies another higher-frequency signal called the carrier. The carrier is usually a sine wave that is higher in frequency than the highest baseband signal frequency. The baseband signal modifies the amplitude or frequency or phase of the carrier in the modulation process. Modulation techniques are classified according which parameter of the carrier is changed. + Amplitude modulation ; In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the cartier is varied according to the baseband signal keeping its frequency and phase constant. * Frequency modulation : In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier is varied according to the baseband signal. * Phase modulation : In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is varied according to the baseband signal. 1.6.1 Need for Modulation We have seen that baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium and therefore we have to use modulation technique for the communication of baseband signal. The advantages of using modulation technique are as given below :Analog Communication 1-21 Introduction to Communication System * Reduces the height of antenna + Avoids mixing of signals * Increases the range of communication * Allows multiplexing of signals * Allows adjustments in the bandwidth * Improves quality of reception 1. Reduces the height of antenna The height of the antenna required for transmission and reception of radio waves in radio transmission is a function of wavelength of the frequency used. The minimum height of the antenna is given as ./4. The wavelength 4 is given as £ ft where —_c is the velocity of light and f is the frequency. From the above equation it can be easily noticed that at low frequencies wavelength is very high and hence the antenna height. For example, consider the baseband signal with f = 15 kHz. Then - i ¢ Height of antenna = 5 = 755 3x 108 © 15x103 x4 = 5000 meters This 5000 meters height of a vertical antenna is unthinkable and unpracticable. On the other hand, if we consider a modulated signal with 1 MHz frequency in the broadcast band the height of antenna is given as ac aha 3x 108 1x108%4 Height of antenna 4 = 75 meters This height of antenna is practical and such antenna can be installed.Analog Communication 1-22 Introduction to Communication System 2. Avoids mixing of signals All sound signals are concentrated within the range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The transmission of baseband signals from various sources causes the mixing of signal and then it is difficult to separate at the receiver end. In order to separate the various signals, it is necessary to translate them all to different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (channel); each must be given its own bandwidth commonly known as channel bandwidth. This can be achieved by taking different carrier frequency for different signal source as shown in the Fig. 1.15. Once the signals have been transmitted, a tuned circuit at the receiver end selects the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum it is tuned for. Therefore modulating different signal sources by different carrier frequencies avoid mixing of signals. Sigal tones Suna Moatnd Sanat 3 Mots Soa Coane “nace gwar Frequency too kz 200 tHe 300 ne aoe | ; ‘ ‘Signal 2 Frequency oO ‘ 20 kHz frequency Signal 3 SOKHe —120KMe 180KH2 — 220;KHe 280 Ke 320 KHZ Frequency i ‘ i 1 i aban wt a Oo 1 Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 ‘ ‘ bandwidth bandwidth bandwidth Fig. 1.15 Modulation avoids mixing of signals 3. Increases the range of communication At low frequencies radiation is poor and signal gets highly attenuated. Therefore baseband signals cannot be transmitted directly over long distance. Modulation effectively increases the frequency of the signal to be radiated and thus increases the distance over which signals can be transmitted faithfully. 4, Allows multiplexing of signals The modulation permits multiplexing to be used. Multiplexing means transmission of two or more signals simultaneously over the same channel. The common examples of multiplexing are the number of Television channels operating simultaneously or number of radio stations broadcasting the signal in MW and SW_ band, simultaneously. The different signals from different stations can be separated in the receiver since the carrier frequencies for these signals are different. It is commonly known as tuningAnalog Communication 1-23 Introduction to Communication System the receiver to the desired station. By tuning process, the desired signal is selected and at the same time, other unwanted signals are rejected. 5. Allows adjustments in the bandwidth Bandwidth of a modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the original signal. Signal to noise ratio in the receiver which is a function of the signal bandwidth can thus be improved by proper control of the bandwidth at the modulating stage. 6. Improves quality of reception The signal communication using modulation techniques such as frequency modulation, pulse code modulation reduce the effect of noise to great extent. Reduction in noise improves the quality of reception 1.6.2 Types of Modulations We may classify the modulation process into continuous-wave modulation and pulse modulation. In continuous-wave (CW) modulation, a sinusoidal wave is used as the carrier. When the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the base band signal, we have amplitude modulation (AM), and when the angle of the carrier is varied, we have angle modulation. ‘Types of Modulations: ——————_ Continuous Wave Modulation Pulse Modulation Amplitude Angle Digital Analog Modulation Modulation ‘Modulation Modulation Frequency Phase Pulse Code ‘Modulation Modulation Modulation PAM POM PPM. Fig. 1.16 Modulation techniques The angle modulation is further subdivided into frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM), in which the instantaneous frequency and phase of the carrier, respectively, are varied in accordance with the baseband signal. In pulse modulation, the carrier consists of a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, The pulse modulation is further subdivided into analog and digital type.Analog Communication 1-24 Introduction to Communication System In analog pulse modulation, the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is varied in accordance with sample values of the base band signal to have pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse position modulation (PPM), respectively. + 1.6.21 Amplitude Modulation In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by the modulating signal. Here, information signal is the modulating signal and high frequency signal which is being modulated is the carrier signal. Formally, AM is defined as system of modulation in which the instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal Fig. 1.17 shows a single frequency sine wave modulating a higher frequency carrier signal with amplitude modulation. | Baseband casi fas i | | / Fig. 1.17 Amplitude modulationAnalog Communication 1-25 Introduction to Communication System 1.6.2.2 Frequency Modulation Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant, while its frequency is varied by the modulating signal. The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is known as frequency deviation. Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal. Fig. 1.18 shows a single frequency sine wave modulating a higher frequency carrier signal with frequency modulation. ti | Baseband signal +1 a Prrdescber eee | {= Frequency modulated wave Minarnum { frequency’ | Peete | | | Bl Eases frequency Leste tik Fig. 1.18 Frequency modulation 1.6.2.3 Phase Modulation Another way to produce angle modulation is a phase modulation. In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal instead of its frequency; as in FM, the amplitude of the carrier remains constant. The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift. Fig. 1.19 shows a single frequency sine wave modulating a higher frequency carrier signal with phase modulation.Analog Communication 1-26 __ Introduction to Communication System Fig. 1.19 Phase modulation Here, the positive alternations of the modulating signal produce a lagging phase shift and negative signals produce a leading phase shift. As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag increases with the amplitude of the modulating signal. This causes the carrier sine wave to be effectively stretched out reducing its frequency. When modulating signal goes negative, the phase shift becomes leading. This causes the carrier sine wave to be effectively compressed increasing its frequency. 1.6.2.4 Pulse Amplitude Modulation In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of periodic sequential pulses are varied in accordance with sample values of the baseband signal. Copyrighted material