Environ Sci Pollut Res (2012) 19:2354–2362
DOI 10.1007/s11356-012-0745-z
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Classification of dimension stone wastes
Zeki Karaca & Abdülkerim Pekin &
Ahmet Hamdi Deliormanlı
Received: 12 August 2011 / Accepted: 6 January 2012 / Published online: 1 February 2012
# Springer-Verlag 2012
Abstract
Purpose For countries in which the stone industry is
well developed, opposition to quarry and plant waste
is gradually increasing. The primary step for waste
control and environmental management is to define
the problem of concern. In this study, natural building
stone wastes were classified for the first time in the
literature.
Methods Following on-site physical observations and re-
search at more than 50 quarries and 20 plants, stone wastes
were classified as (1) solid, (2) dust and (3) semi-slurry,
slurry and cake.
Conclusions As a result of this study, the characteristics
of wastes, their main environmental threats and the
industries in which wastes could be used were defined
for each group.
Keywords Stone . Quarry . Stone industry . Waste .
Environmental management . Waste classification
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Z. Karaca (*)
Department of Geological Engineering,
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University,
Çanakkale, Turkey
e-mail: zeki@comu.edu.tr
A. Pekin
Mining Technology Program, Balıkesir University,
Balıkesir, Turkey
A. H. Deliormanlı
Department of Mining Engineering, Dokuz Eylül University,
Izmir, Turkey
1 Introduction
Waste is an important environmental problem for countries
in which the natural stone industry is well developed. For
decades, social and governmental influences on stone
quarries and plants and their wastes have been gradually
increasing in Turkey, Italy, Spain, Greece, Brazil and India.
The reuse of stone wastes in the industries of origin or in
other industries is currently being researched in an effort to
reduce the quantity and proportion of wastes and to mitigate
the effects of wastes on human health and the environment.
Wastes are inevitable in any vital facility. Waste control
and environmental management is vital for sustainable
economies and industries. However, issues or problems
can only be resolved to the extent that they are defined.
Mitchell et al. (2004) defined mine wastes as residues,
liberates and other valueless materials that are produced
during manufacturing and processing. As shown in Table 1,
wastes have been classified according to their economic
importance, resource requirements and potential final area
of use. The possible environmental effects of wastes are
absent in this classification. For waste control and environ-
mental management, the environmental effects of wastes
must be presented clearly.
According to Mitchell et al. (2004), natural stone wastes
are first and second group mineral wastes. Within this clas-
sification, stone wastes have been evaluated in simple terms,
considering the solid wastes accumulated in quarries and
plants. This classification is inadequate for determining the
environmental effect limitations of wastes and the appropri-
ate waste control measures. Stones and the environmental
effects of their wastes must be defined in more detail.
The primary purpose of this study, a follow up to a
previous study, was to classify natural building stone wastes
(Karaca 2009). First, stone wastes were identified and
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2012) 19:2354–2362 2355

Table 1 Classification of mineral wastes (Mitchell et al. 2004)

Group Description Example Potential end uses

Type 1 Unprocessed wastes Quarry scalpings, quarry blocks, Fill, low grade road stone, armourstone,
colliery spoil brick clay
Type 2 Processed wastes—reclaimed mineral Silica sand wastes, limestone wastes, Silica sand, kaolin, brick clay, mineral
building stone wastes filler, aglime, aggregate
Type 3 Processed wastes added value products Lead/zinc wastes, pegmatite wastes, Fluorite, barite, feldspar, rare earths, mica,
silica sand wastes heavy minerals
Type 4 Beneficiated wastes Certain mine wastes Gemstones, high value metals

defined. For the first time, a conclusive stone waste classi-
fication scheme based on the characteristics, environmental
effects and usages of wastes in different industries was
produced.
2 Materials and methods
The samples (marble, limestone, travertine, onyx and gran-
ite) were obtained from the quarries in countries (Turkey,
Italy, China and Pakistan) which have high stone reserves
and well-developed stone industry. Particle size of the sam-
ples was obtained by sieve analysis, and chemical analysis
was performed by inductively coupled plasma mass spec-
trometry. Results are tabulated in Table 2. Also, the chem-
ical compositions of major components as CaO, MgO and
SiO2 which are significant for determining cutting and pro-
cessing methods are given in Table 2.
2.1 Stone characteristics and definitions
The pieces, particles and dusts generated at facilities during
the extraction, cutting and processing of blocks from
quarries, as well as the pieces remaining after final manu-
facturing, are defined as “stone waste”. Natural stone wastes
are generated during the stages of drilling, cutting and
processing or during the quality control process. In industry,
stone wastes are categorised into two groups based on their
dimensional and main characteristics. The first group is
solid natural stone wastes. Solid waste dimensions vary
from a few millimetres to hundreds of centimetres; the
maximum dimensions are 180×220×315 cm. In quarries,
the volume of solid waste can be substantial. As productiv-
ity decreases, the unit volume of waste increases. Based on
dimensions and quantities, solid wastes are more important
for quarries. According to the dimensions, economic values
and characteristics of the materials that are not included with
the final product, solid wastes are defined as rejection (solid
waste in quarry), valvestone and paladian fractions.
Based on the geological-geotechnique parameters and
capacity of equipment, the block productivity in natural
stone quarries is between 5% and 20% in Turkey. Some
marble quarries have production rates of 2% in West Ana-
tolia. Occasionally, at some of the travertine and limestone
quarries in the Denizli district, Central-Northern and
Central-Eastern Anatolia and the Diyarbakır district, the
block productivity can exceed 40% to 60%.
Pre-shearing treatments, in which block cutting machines
are used to straighten the surfaces of blocks, produce
“sweeping or trimming”. The bottom level of blocks, which
is left uncut for safety, is called “valvestone”. The sweeping
and valvestone are often discarded. The sweeping and
valvestone rate of a block can be increased by up to 25%.
At each level of production (semi-finished, product and final
product) at a processing plant, dimensional residuary pieces
that are broken or deemed to be unacceptable in the quality
control process, due to their economic and material charac-
teristics and their inability to be reused, are called “pala-
dian”. In plants, the rate of solid and slurry or cake waste
generation increases following the semi-finished and final
product processes. This rate can reach 40–60% in reference
to the correlation between block and product dimensions as

Table 2 Samples properties and

details of the site investigation Dimension stone Country Number Chemical analysis (in wt.%)

Quarry Plant CaO MgO SiO2

Marble Turkey, Pakistan 25 7 55.37 0.49 0.06

Limestone Turkey, Pakistan, Italy 16 5 54.43 1.17 0.15
Travertine Turkey 9 6 52.02 2.38 1.47
Onyx Turkey, Pakistan 2 3 55.31 0.53 0.08
Granite Turkey, Italy, China 3 3 3.92 0.47 67.04
2356
well as the surface processing type and edge processing
characteristics.
The wastes defined as second group wastes within the
industry are post-production and post-process wastes, most
of which have grain sizes that are smaller than 100 μm and
seldom larger than 150 μm. The second group of wastes
consists of dust, semi-slurry, slurry and cake. In quarries and
plants, water is used not only for cooling drilling tips,
cutters, shiners and stone but also for removing the chip-
pings and particles that are generated during the extraction,
cutting and processing stages. Stone slurries and cakes con-
tain materials, such as sawdust and hydrocarbons that are
different from natural stone.
In quarries, solid wastes also contain dust, semi-slurry
and rice (granule stone waste). Currently, the most common-
ly used block extraction techniques are diamond wire cut-
ting and chain-armed sawing techniques in carbonated stone
quarries. Diamond wires cut stone by grinding and ruptur-
ing. There are two types of diamond beads on the wire: (1)
sintered diamond beads and (2) electrolytic diamond beads.
Water is used to cool the sintered diamonds and to remove
stone dust and rice from the cutting space. Because of the
evaporation and absorption of water by soil, semi-slurry
wastes are only observed in a limited area. Water is not used
for electrolytic diamond cutters. Dust is mixed with air as
stones are cut with electrolytic diamond wires. Along the
cutting line, sintered beads and electrolytic beads grind the
stone mass into pieces with dimensions of 6–12 and 5–
11 mm, respectively. During drilling, which is performed
on stones for the diamond wire technique, rice and dust are
produced. Chain-armed saws cut the stone mass by break-
out. Rice wastes accumulate along the edge of the cutting
line. Meanwhile, partial grinding occurs. Chain sawing
opens 15 to 20 mm spaces on the stone mass. The sintered
diamond wire technique and the gel technique are used to
extract siliceous blocks such as granite. Gel is injected into
the pierced holes on the stone mass throughout the block
borders. As the gel expands, it cracks the mass, and blocks
are removed.
In plants, wastes are mainly formed during the cutting of
blocks with the cutting machines [strip and trim (S/T)] and
gang saws. With gang saw cutting, to provide support dur-
ing the sawing of siliceous blocks (granite), a solution of
180–250 g/L of metal granules is added to the cooling water.
The grain sizes of the granules are less than 2 mm, with
d 50 090 μm. According to waste rates, block cutting
machines and gang saws are followed by splitting machines,
bridge cutting machines, cross cutting machines and polish-
ing machines. During cutting operations, stone is ground,
and there is a limited amount of breakout. Discs and saws
open 4 to 10 mm spaces in blocks. After the cutting oper-
ations, dust is removed from the media by cooling water,
and the slurry drains through channels to purification plants.
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2012) 19:2354–2362
Approximately 20–22% of the block is ground and dis-
carded. To reduce water expenses at plants and to ensure
control of the slurry and its environmental effects, wastewa-
ter is treated and fed back into the system. Slurry from the
purification plant is converted into cakes and shifted to
storage areas. More than 20% of the metal granules are
discharged in cake form to the environment. A grain size
analysis of the ground and ruptured stone particles is given
in Table 3. The metal granules are also described in Table 3.
The grains obtained by breakout during chain sawing were
subjected to a sieve analysis, and laser analysis was used for
the other wastes. A stone waste flow chart is given in Fig. 1.
The amount of waste generated depends on the waste
form (solid, dust, semi-slurry, slurry and cake); the sizes of
particles and granules; the natural building stone type; the
geological, petrographical and textural properties of the
stone; the plant capacity; the technical features of the cutting
and processing machines; and the correlation between the
dimensions of blocks and final products in quarries and
plants. Generally, large primal cuttings reduce the amount
of solid wastes generated in quarries. Moreover, as the size
of blocks increases, the amount of waste decreases. To
reduce the waste rate and costs, compatibility between the
dimensions of blocks and final products is important.
2.2 Environmental effects of natural stone wastes
Nearly all industrial and human activities produce a certain
amount of waste, and each waste has environmental effects.
Due to economic and social developments, high qualities of
living and health standards, environmental management and
waste control are obligatory (Segadãesa et al. 2005). Increas-
ing levels of education and environmental awareness have
caused public pressure to escalate. In Turkey, some quarries
and mines have been blocked from commencing operations
due to public pressure. Production facilities have been limit-
ed, and production activities have been terminated.
Proponents have long argued that quarries and plants
only cause physical pollution. Investigations have shown
that stone wastes are important for human and environmen-
tal health. Natural building stone wastes have been shown to
damage mankind, other living creatures and ecosystems.
Table 3 Stone particles and metal granule sizes (micrometer)
Sample (after processing) d10 d80 d90
Electrolytic wire cutting 5.21 37.26 99.79
Sintered wire cutting 3.17 26.53 91.66
Chain cutting 65 875 1,800
Purification (plant for limestone) 1.2 6.3 25.08
Purification (gangsaw for granite) 4.13 16.49 70.55
Metal granule (gangsaw for granite) 4.25 24.55 140.64
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2012) 19:2354–2362
Fig 1 Stone waste forming—flow schema
However, slurry and cake wastes are important for plants
and local administrations. In Turkey, solid, semi-slurry and
slurry wastes produced by plants directly and those
Fig. 2 Stone slurry waste mixing with a river (Buner/Pakistan)
2357
produced in cake form have been shifted to dumping areas.
They are rarely shifted to official disposal regions. For dump-
ing areas, no sufficient investigations have been conducted for
surface waters or ground waters. Further, semi-slurry and
slurry wastes are often discharged into rivers (Fig. 2).
The most extensive research on the environmental effects
of stone wastes was conducted by Motyka and Postawa
(2000), Simsek et al. (2005) and Rizzo et al. (2008). The
solid wastes of quarries and plants are under the influence of
the atmosphere (rain and oxidisation). After 2–10 years, as a
result of the decomposition of sulphide components in solid
wastes and oxidisation of sulphides, new minerals and clays
are formed. During the physical and chemical decomposition
of rocks, climatic conditions, including the amount of precip-
itation and the temperature, are important. Physical decompo-
sition often initiates chemical decomposition. As a result of
physical decomposition, mass losses occur, and the sizes of
stones decrease (Motyka and Postawa 2000; Simsek et al.
2005; Rizzo et al. 2008). This increases the surface area for
chemical reactions, and rocks are gradually softened. High
precipitation rates and temperatures, as well as exposure to
ultraviolet light, cause chemical decomposition (Mitchell
1976; Matsui et al. 2002; Munk et al. 2006). Pyrite (FeS2) is
a mineral that is commonly found in natural contraction
stones. Pyrite is exposed to various oxidisation processes
during decomposition (Sengupta 1993).
7
FeS2 þ O2 þ H2 O ! Fe2þ þ 2SO4 2 þ 2Hþ ð1Þ
2
Following exposure to large amounts of oxidation, the
following reaction occurs:
1 1
Fe2þ þ O2 þ Hþ $ Fe3þ þ H2 O ð2Þ
4 2
For pH values greater than 2.3–3.5, the transformation of
Fe3+ ions to Fe(OH)3 accelerates. Concurrently, mixing
small amounts of Fe3+ with a solution reduces pH.
Fe3þ þ 3H2 O $ FeðOHÞ3ðsÞ þ 3Hþ ð3Þ
If Fe3+ remains in a solution and combines with pyrite,
the following reaction occurs:
FeS2 þ 14Fe3þ þ 8H2 O ! 15Fe2þ þ 2SO4 2 þ 16Hþ
ð4Þ
2−
As a result of this process, Fe(OH)3 and SO4 , which are
important for water resources and human health, form.
Therefore, contact among wastes, water and oxygen must
be prevented.
15 7
FeS2 þ O2 þ H2 O ! FeðOHÞ3 þ 2SO4 2 þ 4Hþ
4 2
ð5Þ
2358
The solution pH is an important issue for this reaction.
The solubility of SiO2 and Al2O3 depends on the pH level of
clay (Mitchell, 1976). To prevent metal components in
wastes from reacting and subsequently damaging the envi-
ronment, disposal area wastes should be covered by soils
with a low permeability.
Motyka and Postawa (2000) studied the effects of quarry
wastes on the quality of river water. They reported that
mixing solid stone wastes with river water increases the
levels of sulphate, calcium, magnesium and hydrocarbons.
This results in river pollution, changes in the leachate and
ionisation of aquifer rocks. Rizzo et al. (2008) determined
that marble slurry produces highly dissolved oxygen in
underground water. The size of waste grains is important
in this pollution type. These authors also reported that in the
laboratory environment and under appropriate conditions,
solid wastes slowly integrate with water and impair water
quality.
The relationship between mankind and the environment
has been characterised since the ancient Greek and Roman
periods (Parise et al. 2009). Karst waters and their aquifers
are important, especially for potable water resources. In
karst areas, hydrogeological and geophysical research must
be conducted for waste disposal sites. The status of receiv-
ing surface waters and underground water circulation
courses, the relationship between waste disposal areas
and these courses and the effects of wastes on under-
ground water must be investigated. Surface water and
underground water pollution caused by organic and inor-
ganic materials that are introduced to wastes during the
cutting, processing and water purification stages, as well
as the presence of slurries and particles that block under-
ground water courses and rock pores, must also be
researched (Zhou et al. 2007).
Simsek et al. (2005) researched the effects of marble
plant wastes on rivers and alluvial aquifers. They deter-
mined that wastes increase water hardness. Carbonated
stone wastes adversely affect not only the quality of drink-
ing water but also the quality of irrigation water. Lead, iron
and cadmium, which are introduced to wastes by the cutting
and processing equipment, impair water quality. The level of
pollution also depends on the amounts of waste, the charac-
teristics of the wastes, the precipitation intensity, the debility
of the river and the permeability of the soil.
Wastes increase the CaO and MgO concentrations in
water. Marble slurry wastes increase the amounts of Ca,
Ca/Mg, Mg/(Ca + Mg), Ca/HCO3, (Ca + Mg)/HCO3 and
(Ca + Mg)/Cl, which constitute the hydro-geochemical
parameters. Large amounts of Ca/Mg in irrigation waters
and surface waters decrease the productivity of products
(Girdhar and Yalav 1980). Marble particles reduce soil
permeability and prevent roots from accessing adequate
amounts of air, thereby damaging plants.
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2012) 19:2354–2362
Cutter, abrasive, cohesive and filling materials, which are
introduced in natural stone wastes during cutting and pro-
cessing operations, are important. To improve the aesthetic
and mechanical properties of blocks and products that con-
tain intensive discontinuities and pores, materials such as
resin, cement, natural stone dust, kaolin and dye have been
used. Resin and flocculants have been used in the purifica-
tion process to increase the pH level and electric conductiv-
ity (EC) of water (Simsek et al. 2005; Rizzo et al. 2008).
However, organic resin in wastes with fine grains causes
hydrogeological sedimentation, which is a threat for under-
ground waters. Most carbonated stone quarries are situated
in karst aquifer areas. Because of transportation and land
costs, quarries and areas near quarries are often chosen for
stone processing plants. Karst aquifers are the most impor-
tant water resource for the drinking and agriculture water
needs of many areas. Water resources in calcareous regions,
which consist of waters that flow between karst gaps and sea
water intakes, are important (Afrasiabian 2007). Resin par-
ticles that mix with carbonates and wastes can fill karst and
rock joints. For these areas, slurry waste is an important
hydrogeological hazard. In addition to slowly reducing wa-
ter discharge to the surface, resin also prevents water supply
and movement and hinders the natural water cycle by re-
ducing the permeability of rocks. Further, styrenic pollution
can also occur over the long term (Rizzo et al. 2008).
Similar problems have also been observed near plants that
are situated on alluvial aquifers and for uncontrolled wastes
(Simsek et al. 2005). Natural water courses and rock gaps
become blocked, and the chemistry of water is altered,
further damaging ecosystems.
2.3 Usage areas of natural stone wastes
Reducing the rate and amount of generated wastes is a
comprehensive topic. To reduce the effects of waste, waste
reuse in the natural stone industry and other industries can
be an economical and practical solution. However, the ef-
fective consumption of non-renewable natural resources is
important for a sustainable production economy. Reusing
98% of the waste generated at marble quarries, compared to
2% productivity for other industries, is important for im-
proved environmental management, the optimal usage of
natural resources and energy saving. Moreover, only 40%
of blocks extracted from quarries at 2% productivity are put
on the market; the remaining 60% is discarded, indicating
the environmental and economic extent of the stone indus-
try. In this context, reusing stone wastes is a technical,
economic and environmental responsibility, and it is a re-
quirement. Further, reuse also increases profitability and
productivity while decreasing safety risks and environmen-
tal hazards.
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2012) 19:2354–2362
Fig. 3 Slurry and cake waste dumping area (Iscehisar/Turkey)
In the literature, the reuse of carbonated wastes with
certain specifications in industries, such as paper, dye, plas-
tic, rubber caoutchouc, glass, sugar, agriculture, animal
breading, cleaning, care, health and chemistry industries,
has been reported. However, the contents and environmental
effects of some stone wastes limit the usage of the wastes in
industries associated with living beings. Stone wastes used
in the sugar industry must have universal norms. In this
case, purity and chemical content are important. As shown
in Fig. 3, at the disposal areas, wastes with different features
are mixed. More than 200 plants dump more than
1,200 tons/day of slurry and cake wastes in the Iscehisar
(Afyon) waste disposal area. By categorising wastes with
similar characteristics, dumping can provide a solution for a
lack of disposal areas and can help to meet the waste
demands of industry in a timely manner. Sufficient waste
characterisations should measure the raw material quantities
that are required by industry. Furthermore, for reusing stone
wastes in other industries, the level of contamination, mois-
ture content, material characteristics (chemical and physi-
cal), homogeneity, continuity and capacity are important. In
some industries, instead of relying on processes such as
crushing, grinding, classification, drying or sizing of stone
wastes, the required raw materials can be extracted from
nature. Often, extracting raw materials from nature is more
economical and competitive.
The industry in which natural stone wastes can be used
directly or with a limited number of pre-treatments is the
construction industry. Natural stone wastes can be used as
armourstone, gabions, filling and aggregate in dams, har-
bours, rivers, roads and buildings. Crushed rock quarries
and production facilities account for 60% of all world min-
ing operations. This amounts to over 100 billion/year USD.
Worldwide, crushed rock is the second most consumed
material per capita following water (Karaca and Elçi
2008). Thus, many researchers are investigating the use of
2359
natural stone wastes in the construction and building indus-
tries. Zorluer and Usta (2003) researched ground improve-
ment using marble dust. Rizzo et al. (2008) researched
the feasibility of waste recycling for concrete aggregates.
Akbulut and Gürer (2007) researched the use of marble
quarry wastes as asphalt aggregates. Karaşahin and Terzi
(2007) researched the use of marble wastes in concrete roads.
Binici et al. (2007) researched the use of wastes in concrete.
Turgut (2008) used the dust of limestone in light bricks.
Catarino et al. (2003) researched the production of compressed
and sintered brick using slate dusts. Carbonated wastes have
been used to absorb important pollutants such as CO, CO2,
SO2, HCl and H2SO4, which are emitted from chimneys, lakes,
waste disposal areas and other sources (Rizzo et al. 2008;
Karaca and Çalapkulu F 2000; Xianga et al. 2009).
Plant solid wastes can be reused in the plant in which
they were generated to add value. For carbonated stones,
tumbling and mosaics are the most popular interface pro-
duction lines, whereas for hardstones and fossiliferrous
limestones, firing is the most popular. By applying the
tumbling technique, more economic and aesthetic value
can be added to limestones and travertines. Furthermore,
with the ageing method, any amorphous natural stone can be
transformed to pebble or garden landscaping decoration
material. In addition to the tumbling method, the industrial
mosaic production method can be used to process products
that do not qualify for direct sales following production or
quality control. Compared to other industries, parameters
such as impurity, material characteristics and homogeneity
are relatively less important in the stone and construction
industries. In this context, the stone and construction indus-
tries are suitable solutions for reducing and controlling the
environmental effects of stone wastes.
3 Results and discussion
Wastes are an inevitable part of life and industrial production.
The increasing world population, uncontrolled immigration
and industrialisation affect natural resources. Increasing edu-
cation levels and rising incomes result in environmental pres-
sures and policies. In the United Nations and European
communities, countries and non-governmental organisations
are making an effort to control wastes and to reduce their
negative effects.
To completely solve a problem, it must first be defined.
Neither the classification given in Table 1 nor the binary
group in industry is insufficient for the control and manage-
ment of the environmental effects of stone wastes. In this
research, natural stone wastes were classified, as shown in
Table 4, for the first time. Table 4 lists physical, chemical and
petrographical features of the wastes, their environmental
effects and their potential uses in other industries. Figure 1
2360 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2012) 19:2354–2362

Table 4 Classification of stone wastes

Group Description Properties Composition Contains Environmental Industry (usage area)

metallic threat
mineral

I Solid Quarry waste Rejection, rice, diamond Carbonated, Yes/no Health, ecosystem, Stone (vase, trinket)
wire fragments, silicified, water resources
vidia bits, some others
chemicals, oil
Plant waste Valvestone, paladian, Construction (aggregate,
abrasive residues, fill material, armourstone,
saw and other cutter gabion)
residues, oil
II Dust Stone particle Chemical (filling, whitening,
(dry and fly) abrasive)
Agriculture and livestock
(acid regulatory, fertilizer
and animal breeding)
III Semi-slurry, Stone particle, Stone (pore filler)
slurry, cake sawdust, resin, Construction (fine fill,
metal, some mixture material)
chemicals, oil
Chemical (fill material
for ceramic and plastic)

and Table 4 were developed after on-site observations and components, a different process is required. Because they
research at more than 50 quarries and more than 20 plants. are produced in small quantities and have low impurities,
This classification will aid researchers studying stone wastes. rice wastes can be used with other wastes to construct roads
As shown in Table 4, stone wastes were classified in and other infrastructure.
three groups that were different from those used in industry. The solid wastes produced at plants include valvestones
The first group is solid wastes. Quarry and plant solid and paladians. Valvestone is the portion that remains in
wastes were considered separately due to their amounts block cutting machines for safety reasons (Fig. 4). Paladian
and characteristics. Quarry solid wastes are stones without includes products with no economic value and the surplus
any economic value, overburden, weathered stone and all material from production (Fig. 5). Plant solid wastes, which
other stone, aside from the main rock. In quarries, depend- are similar to quarry solid wastes, can be feasibly recycled.
ing on the evenness of a stone's surface and the presence of Abrasive, saw and disc residues, as well as greasy stones,
fissures, the volume of solid wastes can be greater than that can easily be separated from valvestone and paladian. The
of large blocks (12 m3). Solid wastes can easily be separated most appropriate industry in which these wastes can be
from other waste materials such as diamond wire fragments, reused is the construction industry. Valvestone and paladian
vidia bits, certain chemicals and grease. In this context,
quarry solid waste is more pure and relatively more abun-
dant than other stone wastes. Solid wastes with specific
mineral and chemical contents can be reused in industries
that do not require preliminary preparations (e.g. crushing
and grinding) and that need relatively large quantities of raw
materials. The construction industry is the most appropriate
industry in which quarry solid wastes can be reused. If these
wastes satisfy the appropriate standards, they can be used
for road and sea filling. After crushing and classification,
aggregates can be obtained. Souvenirs such as ornaments or
vases can be produced from multivalent or rare wastes.
However, within the stone industry, stone waste usage is
limited.
Rice wastes are produced by chain cutters and drillers.
Rice wastes are generated in small quantities and are often
mixed with vidia and oil. To separate rice from these other Fig. 4 Valvestones
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2012) 19:2354–2362
Fig. 5 Paladians
can be used as fill-in infrastructure projects, or after a
preliminary process, they can be used in aggregate produc-
tion. The quantities of these wastes are small compared to
the amounts of quarry solid wastes.
The second group of wastes is the dust wastes, the purest
of stone wastes. In all block extracting techniques, some
amount of dust waste forms. More dust forms during cutting
with electrolytic diamond beads than during dry drilling.
Dust can be collected with the help of auxiliary equipment
such as exhausters. Because they do not contain other mate-
rials, carbonated dust wastes can be used in the chemical
industry and its subindustries if the wastes meet certain
criteria. Dust wastes can also be used in agriculture and
animal breeding. Generally, quantities and the accumulation
period limit the usage of dust wastes. However, capturing
and storing dust wastes are important steps for people with
asthma and for pterygota-metabola (flying insects) such as
bees. Flying dust is dangerous for asthmatic people, espe-
cially during the spring and summer seasons (Karaşahin and
Terzi 2007; Binici et al. 2007; Turgut 2008).
The third group of wastes includes semi-slurry, slurry and
cake wastes. Semi-slurry and slurry wastes are associated
with ruptured, ground and scraped particles formed by the
introduction of cooling water. Semi-slurry waste is observed
in quarries in which less water is used. Water is absorbed by
soils, and evaporation is intensive.
In plants, particles are held in front pools. The particles
are then precipitated in purification tanks, and overflow
water is fed back into the plant. Flocculants are used to
precipitate particles. Precipitated particles are percolated,
and cakes are shifted offsite. Cake wastes follow solid
wastes in terms of quantity produced. Compared to semi-
slurry and slurry wastes, cake wastes are more homoge-
neously granulated and have less water content. Considering
quantity, grain size and granulation, cake wastes are the
most suitable for use in other industries. Cake wastes
2361
include flocculants, oxalic acids, resins and polymers from
abrasives. Resins and polymers are used to improve pores
and cracks in stone materials. Sawdust and grease from
discs, blades and machines are also important. Different
materials in cake wastes limit their disposability in a wide
range of industries. As with the other groups of stone
wastes, rock composition limits the usage of cake wastes.
Except for carbonated stones, siliceous and other types of
stones can generally be used in the construction industry as
aggregates and fill materials and in the production of build-
ing materials. The metal granules used in the cutting of
siliceous natural stones also limit the reuse of cake wastes.
Subsequent to these evaluations, carbonated cakes can be
disposed of in various ways. Carbonated cakes can be used
in marble production, in filling gaps on the surfaces of
porous stone products, in masonry mortar and in concrete.
Cake wastes are a suitable, fine fill material for road con-
struction. Homogeneous carbonated cake wastes, with suit-
able moisture contents and size distributions, can be used as
fill materials in the stone and construction industries and in
the production of ceramics and plastics.
The most important parameters for the usage of stone
wastes in the stone industry or in other industries are waste
composition (mineralogical and chemical), physical features
(moisture and size), homogeneity, continuity and universal-
ly required characteristics. Otherwise, all research on this
issue would remain at the laboratory scale, and stone waste
management and reuse would not be possible. The sug-
gested classification of natural building stone wastes, which
was developed for the first time in this study, is expected to
contribute to research on stone wastes and to increase the
feasibility and applicability of stone waste reuse.
4 Conclusions
In this article, stone quarry and plant wastes were defined,
and their sources of formation and material characteristics
were explained. Following on-site observations and research
in more than 50 quarries and more than 20 facilities, stone
wastes were classified into three groups: (1) solid, (2) dust
and (3) semi-slurry, slurry and cake wastes. The environmen-
tal threats of each group were presented based on previous
studies. To control the environmental effects of stone wastes,
industries in which the wastes can be reused were identified,
and the material features of the wastes were described. The
results of this study can be summarised as follows:
& For the first time, natural building stone wastes were
classified.
& For both environmental and natural resource manage-
ment in sustainable economic systems, stone wastes can
2362
be used in the stone, construction, chemical, agricultural
and animal breeding industries.
& For the reuse of stone wastes in any industry, the min-
eralogical and chemical composition, moisture content,
grain size, homogeneity, continuity and quantity of the
wastes must be adequate. Further, certain characteristics
must be met for specific industries.
This classification of natural building stone wastes,
which was developed for the first time in this study and is
based on on-site observations, is expected to contribute to
research on stone wastes and to increase the feasibility of
stone waste reuse.
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