Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INDEX
Page
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3.5 Operating Variables............................................................32
6. Electroslag Welding..........................................................................40
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1. METAL-ARC WELDING WITH COVERED ELECTRODES
Known in the USA as Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and elsewhere
as manual metal arc welding (MMA) this welding process is by far the most
widely used, especially for short welds in production, maintenance, repair
and construction in the field (see Figure 1). Welds can be made in areas of
limited access and the equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and
portable. Welding in any position is possible provided appropriate electrodes
are chosen. The process may be applied to the most commonly used
metals and alloys such as carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, copper,
nickel and their alloys. It is not suitable for low melting metals such as Tin,
Lead or Zinc or the more oxygen reactive metals such as aluminium,
titanium and zirconium.
The core of the electrode consists of a solid metal rod of drawn or cast
material which conducts the electric current to the arc and provides filler
metal for the joint. The flux coating protects the molten metal from the
atmosphere by forming a slag and a gaseous shield and stabilises the arc.
The slag helps to smooth and shape the weld bead, and has additional
functions, depending on the type of electrode (see Figure 2).
3
Most electrodes are 220-450 mm long but may be up to 900 mm with core
wire diameters from 1.6 mm to 8.0 mm. The arc is brought about by the
difference in electrical potential (voltage) between the electrode and the
base metal. In practice, the voltage drop across the arc will be from about
16-40 V, with the current set generally within the range 20-550 amps. Open
circuit voltage (OCV), which may be referred to is not that across the arc but
that generated by the machine when no welding is being done and it is
usually 50-100V. When the arc is struck, the voltage drops to the arc
voltage. The power supply can be alternating or direct current and in the
latter case the electrode may be connected positively or negatively.
Generally AC seems to be favoured in the UK while DC is more commonly
employed in the USA.
For flat welding, metal transfer across the arc is attributed to gravity, gas
expansion, electric and magnetic forces and surface tension but in other
positions gravity will work against the other phenomena. The centre of the
arc has a temperature of at least 5000-6000° C, well above the melting point
of any metal.
The specification of welding positions is important for two reasons. First, the
manufacturer needs to define the positions for which his electrodes are
suitable. Second, the welder's skills and qualifications are to a large extent
determined by the position at which he can produce an acceptable weld.
It should be pointed out that the welding position is not limited by the
process itself but by the size and type of electrode.
4
There are no absolute definitions of welding positions, but, in principle, such
definitions are all similar, variations arising only from minor differences in
angles. The weld slope may be defined as the angle between the line of the
root of the weld and the horizontal. The weld rotation is defined by drawing
a line from the root of the weld so that it bisects the weld profile and is at
right angles to the weld line. The angle that this line makes with the vertical
is the angle of weld rotation. Intermediate positions not specified may be
referred to as inclined. (See Figure 3 and Table 1).
5
1.3 Functions of the Electrode Coating
The functions of the electrode coating are many and varied but the two of
most significance are:
(a) to provide a gas to shield the arc and prevent excessive atmospheric
contamination of the molten filler metal travelling across the arc;
(b) to improve the smoothness and stability of the arc.
(c) to produce a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the air, to
allow slower cooling and to enhance bead shape and surface
cleanliness of the weld metal;
(d) to provide fluxes, scavengers and deoxidisers to cleanse the weld and
prevent excessive grain growth;
(e) to allow alloying elements to be added to change the composition of
the weld metal.
The use of AC will also affect the demands on the coating since the arc is
extinguished and must be reignited every half cycle. Therefore the arc
atmosphere must contain a suitable ionised gas to make this possible.
Coatings containing iron powder may be used to increase the rate of
deposition and to improve efficiency in the use of arc energy.
The third coating type, 'Rutile', is one consisting mainly of Titanium Dioxide
plus various mineral constituents, and a small proportion of Cellulose - up to
6
about 15%. Protection of the metal as it is passed across the arc is provided
by the dissociation of the Cellulose and the production of large quantities of
slag which will coat the metal droplets as they are transferred.
Metal powders (e.g. iron) may be included in the flux coating to raise the
efficiency of the process and both basic and rutile coating variations of this
type are available. The heavier rutile coatings contain only about 5%
cellulose and as both varieties produce large quantities of molten metal and
slag they are usually restricted to flat (downhand) and horizontal-vertical
fillet welds. Other types of coating are available such as Acid Rutile, Acid
and Oxidising but are, however, little used. Although there may be
considerable differences in the compositions of the electrode cores
depending on the properties desired in the weld, the technique of modifying
composition by including alloying elements in the coating can be of great
importance.
Constituents of the coatings may also include: various clays; silica; oxides
and carbonates of iron, manganese and calcium; aluminium and
magnesium silicates; calcium fluoride, or fluorspar: carbonates and silicates
of sodium and potassium; and ferro-manganese as a deoxidiser.
It should be apparent that the coating on the electrode not only has an
important influence on the properties of the resulting weld metal but it will
also be the principle influence on the welding characteristics themselves,
especially affecting such aspects as welding positions.
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Table 2 Electrode Coating Characteristics and Normal Applications
Class Composition of Covering Characteristics Uses
Cellulosic (C) Organic material containing Thin, easily removable slag. Rather All classes of mild steel
cellulose with some titanium oxide. high splatter loss. Considerable welding in all positions:
Hydrogen releasing. envelope of shielding gas. Coarse a.c. or d.c. electrode
ripple on weld surface, deeply positive.
penetrating arc with rapid burn-off
rate.
Basic (B) Calcium or other basic carbonates Brown slag easy to remove. Medium Suitable for d.c. (electrode
and fluorspar bonded with sodium ripple on weld metal, medium positive) or a.c. with OCV
or potassium silicates. Medium penetration. Fillet profile flat or of 70V. Used for mild, low
coating. Coating compounds convex. Deposited metal has high alloy high tensile and
contain little hydrogen. CO2 resistance to cold cracking because structural steels,
releasing. there is a low hydrogen content in the particularly for conditions
weld. Electrodes must be stored of high restraint. For flat,
under warm dry conditions and dried vertical and overhead
before use. positions, the latter having
a flat deposit.
Basic high Similar to basic electrode covering These electrodes are suitable for welding in the flat and
efficiency (BB) but have additional metallic horizontal/vertical position with a greatly increased rate of metal
materials (e.g. iron powder) in the deposition. Their high efficiency covering makes them unsuitable
covering which raise the efficiency for welding in the vertical and overhead positions. They can be
to 130% and more. used either a.c. or d.c. generally with electrode +ve. Efficiency is
indicated by a three-figure digit beginning the additional coding.
Rutile (R) Titanium dioxide (rutile) and other Easy to use, with smooth weld finish and medium penetration.
hydrated minerals and/or organic High level of hydrogen in the weld metal limits their use in thick
cellulose materials. Coating sections or restrained joints. Suitable for a.c. or d.c. the fast
thickness less than 50% of the freezing of weld metal and fluid slag makes them suitable for
core wire diameter. vertical and overhead welding.
Rutile heavy coating Similar covering to the previous Similar characteristics to rutile electrodes but generally unsuitable
(RR) rutile electrode but containing, in for vertical and overhead welding because of increased slag.
addition metallic substances (e.g. Increased rate of metal deposition. Efficiency is indicated by a
iron powder), which raises the three-figure digit beginning the additional coding.
efficiency to 130% or more.
Coating thickness at least 50%
greater than the core wire
diameter.
Acid (A) Oxides and carbonates of iron and Generally a thick coating which Usually in the flat position
manganese, with deoxidizers such produces a fluid slag of large volume only but can be used in
as ferro-manganese. and solidifies in a ‘puffed-up’ manner, other positions; a.c. or d.c.
is full of holes and easily detached.
Smooth weld finish with small ripples.
Good penetration. Weld liable to
solidification cracking if plate
weldability is not good.
Acid rutile (AR) Generally a thick coating A fluid slag with other characteristics Similar to the acid type of
containing up to 35% rutile. similar to the acid type of covering. coating.
Ilmenite (iron oxide) and titanium
oxide is also used.
Oxidizing (O) Iron oxide with or without Oxidizing slag so that the weld metal d.c. or a.c. supply with
manganese oxide and silicates. has a low carbon and manganese OCV as low as 45V.
content referred to as ‘dead soft’.
Reduction of area and impact values
are lower than for other types of
electrodes. Core wire melts up
inside coating forming a cup so that
the electrode can be used for ‘touch-
welding’. Low penetration; solid slag
often self-deslagging, with weld of
neat appearance.
Any Other Type (S) This category is for any electrode
coverings not included in the
foregoing list. Iron powder
electrodes do not come into this
category but should be indicated
by their efficiency with a three digit
figure.
8
Table 3 Manual Metal Arc Electrode Flux Constituents and their Functions
Constituent Primary Function Secondary
Function
Iron Oxide Slag Former Arc Stabiliser
Rutile (Titanium Dioxide) Slag Former Arc Stabiliser
Magnesia (Magnesium Fluxing Agent -
Oxide)
Calcium Fluoride Slag Former Fluxing Agent
Potassium Silicate Arc Stabiliser Binder
Other Silicates Slag Formers and Fluxing Agent
Binders
Calcium Carbonate Gas Former Arc Stabiliser
Other Carbonates Gas Formers -
Cellulose Gas Former -
Ferro-Manganese Alloying Deoxidiser
Ferro-Chrome Alloying -
Ferro-Silicon Deoxidiser -
9
Most of the low alloy steel electrode classifications are based on the low
hydrogen or basic type of covering. The composition of the basic covering
makes it possible to add a number of alloying elements to produce a range
of weld metal analyses and strengths. The increased strength of the weld
metal is obtained by the addition of alloying elements, which may be
achieved either through the core wire or via the coating.
The European classifications include the chemical symbols such as Mn, Ni,
Cr, when they are present as alloying additions, together with an indication
of the carbon content, the type of covering, and the hydrogen control if
required. Appropriate mechanical properties are specified including tensile
strength, proof stress, elongation and if required impact tests at various
temperatures. (e.g. ECrMo1LB)
The AWS specification for these electrodes is A5.5 and is very similar to that
for carbon steels described above. The first two, or sometimes three, digits
of the classification reflect the tensile strength of the weld deposit (e.g. 80,
110 etc.). For example the covering of E9016 will be similar to an E7016
electrode although the tensile strength will be 90 kpsi and the covering will
generally contain the alloying elements. (e.g. E9016 - C2)
The trend for these electrodes is for the weld metal to be at least as high in
alloy content as the base material, and in some instances may be
considerably higher.
The AWS Specification for these electrodes is A5.4. As before they are
denoted by the prefix E followed by a specification number for the weld
metal deposit. These specification numbers are the same as those of the
AISI series for stainless and alloy steels. (e.g. E316L)
10
Table 4 Stainless Steel Compositions
Similar
ISO Composition of deposited metal AWS (2)
Symbol standard
C Max% Cr % Ni % Mo % Other
elements
13 0.12 11-14 E 410
17 0.10 15-18 E 430
30 0.10 17-30
19.9 0.08 18-21 8-11 E 308
19.9 L 0.04 18-21 8-11 E 308L
19.9 Nb 0.08 18-21 8-11 Nb (1) E 347
19.9 L Nb 0.04 18-21 8-11 Nb (1)
19.12.2 0.08 17-20 11-14 2-2.5 E 316
19.12.2 L 0.04 17-20 11-14 2-2.5 E 316L
19.12.2 0.08 17-20 11-14 2-2.5 Nb (1) E 318
Nb
19.13.4 0.08 17-21 11-15 3.5-
5.5
19.13.4 L 0.04 22-26 11-15 3.5- E 317
5.5
23.12 0.15 22-26 11-15
23.12 L 0.04 22-26 11-15 E 309
23.12 Nb 0.12 22-25 11-15 Nb (1)
23.12.2 0.12 22-25 11-15 2-3
18.8 Mn 0.20 17-20 7-10 Mn 5-8
25.20 0.20 24-28 18-22 E 310
25.20 L 0.04 24-28 18-22
25.20 Nb 0.12 24-28 18-22 Nb (1)
25.20.2 0.12 25-28 18-22 2-3
25.20 C 0.25/0.45 24-28 18-22
20.9 Nb 0.13 18-21 8-10 0.35- Nb (1) E 349
0.65
29.9 0.15 28-32 8-12 E 312
18.36 0.25 14-19 33-38
(1)
NB content = min 8xC content and max. 1.2%. part of Nb can be
replaced by Ta.
(2)
American Welding Society.
11
1.6 The Influence of Welding Current
12
which will give deeper penetration. On the other hand if the electrode is
connected to DC positive (US: DC reverse polarity, DCRP) two thirds of the
heat will be at the electrode, thus increasing the electrode melting rate but
reducing penetration.
The arc length is the distance from the molten tip of the electrode core wire
to the surface of the molten weld pool. Proper arc length is important in
obtaining a sound welded joint. Metal transfer from the tip of the electrode
to the weld pool is not a smooth, uniform action, and instantaneous arc
voltage varies as droplets of molten metal are transferred across the arc,
even with constant arc length.
However, any variation in voltage will be minimal when welding is done with
the proper amperage and arc length. The latter requires constant and
consistent electrode feed.
Too short an arc will be erratic and may short circuit during metal transfer.
Too long an arc will lack direction and intensity, which will tend to spatter the
molten metal as it moves from the electrode to the weld. The spatter may
be heavy and deposition efficiency low. Also, the gas and flux generated by
the covering are not as effective in shielding the arc and the weld metal from
air. The poor shielding can cause porosity and contamination of the weld
metal by oxygen or nitrogen, or both and the quality of the weld will be poor.
Control of arc length is largely a matter of welder skill, involving the welder's
knowledge, experience, visual perception and manual dexterity. Although
the arc length does change to some extent with changing conditions certain
fundamental principles can be given as a guide to the proper arc length for a
given set of conditions.
For downhand welding, particularly with heavy electrode coverings, the tip of
the electrode can be dragged lightly along the joint. The arc length, in this
case, is automatically determined by the depth of the cup at the tip of the
electrode and the melting rate of the electrode. For vertical or overhead
welding, the arc length is always gauged by the welder. The proper arc
length, in such cases, is the one that permits the welder to control the size
and motion of the molten weld pool. The same is true for the root passes in
groove and fillet welds.
13
uses in order to recognise the proper arc length and to know the effect of
different arc lengths. The effect of a long and a short arc on bead
appearance with a mild steel electrode is illustrated (see Figure 4).
Figure 4 Effects of varying current, arc length (arc voltage) and travel
speed illustrated by surfaces and cross-sectional views of shielded
metal-arc welds: left to right - current, arc length and travel speed
normal; current too low; current too high; arc length too short; arc
length too long; travel speed too slow; travel speed too high
At high temperatures hydrogen, unlike oxygen and nitrogen, does not form
any compounds with iron and has a high solubility in the austenite phase.
Hydrogen has a lower solubility in steel after transformation at lower
temperatures, on cooling. This hydrogen will cause embrittlement in steel. In
a weld and the surrounding regions the presence of hydrogen will also
increase the tendency to cracking. It is important in all critical structures to
keep hydrogen to a minimum. The problem can be minimised by employing
basic-coated electrodes which have been baked in manufacture and
subsequently kept dry. Here the coating consists of calcium, and other
carbonates, and fluorspar bonded with sodium or potassium silicate. In the
heat of the arc, the carbonates dissociate releasing carbon dioxide which
acts as the shielding gas. To further reduce moisture content they are
frequently baked immediately before use. Low hydrogen electrodes are
14
normally tested to demonstrate a weld metal hydrogen content of less than
15 cm3/100g of deposited metal.
A Basic slag is relatively thick and viscous which makes the electrodes
comparatively difficult to use. They can however be employed for welding in
all positions and the weld metal has excellent mechanical properties. Such
electrodes are often used for welding structures exposed to high stresses
and are usually specified when there are requirements for impact values at
low temperatures. Basic, low hydrogen coatings are used for electrodes to
deposit high strength steel weld metal.
15
are usually accompanied by poor resistance to impact. Conversely good
impact resistance is not allied to extreme hardness and it is therefore
necessary to determine which quality is of greater importance.
It will be realised that the parent metal will dilute the deposited metal and to
minimise this effect three hard facing layers should be applied where
possible. The total thickness of the hard facing layers should normally not
exceed about 6 mm and where a thicker deposit is required it should first be
built up with low hydrogen weld metal.
This is a simple method for economically welding long fillets in the flat
position using gravity to feed the electrode and to traverse the weld pool
along the joint. An operator can look after two or more machines at any one
time, for example, one on each side of a plate, giving symmetrical welds and
reducing stress and distortion. The electrode holder is mounted on a ball-
bearing carriage and slides smoothly down a guide bar, the angle of which
can be adjusted to give faster or slower traverse and thus vary the length of
deposit of the electrode and the leg length of the weld (see Figure 5).
16
Electrodes of 700 mm and more in length are available in diameters of 3.5,
4.0, 4.5, 5.0 and 5.5 mm using currents of 220-315 A with rutile, rutile-basic
and acid coatings suitable for various grades of steel.
Gravity welding is generally used for fillets with leg lengths of 5-8 mm, the
lengths being varied by altering the length of deposit per electrode. An AC
power source is used for each unit with an OCV of 60V and arc voltage
about 40V with currents up to 300A. Sources are available for supplying up
to 6 units (3 pairs) manageable by one welding operator and so arranged
that when the current setting for one unit is chosen, the remaining units are
supplied at this value. In general the system is particularly suitable for
welding, for example, long parallel stiffeners on large unit panels, enabling
one operator to make three or four times the deposit length compared with
manual welding. Its main application is in ship building for fillet welding in
the horizontal-vertical position.
17
2. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
Submerged arc welding is noted for its ability to employ high weld currents
owing to the properties and functions of the flux. Such currents give deep
penetration and high dilution where twice as much parent metal as wire
electrode is melted. Generally a DC positive current is employed up to
about 1000 amps. At higher currents, AC is often preferred to avoid the
problem of arc blow. Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of
the weld with a predetermined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux.
Where possible, a guide wheel to run in the joint preparation is positioned in
front of the welding head and flux hoppers.
18
2.2 Materials Joined
Submerged arc welding may be used for joining many ferrous and non-
ferrous metals and alloys and to apply cladding to base metals to improve
wear and corrosion resistance. Electrodes are available producing weld
metal suitable for use with plain carbon steel, special alloy steel, stainless
steel, non-ferrous alloys, mainly Nickel based, and special alloys for
surfacing applications. Combinations of carbon steel electrodes and fluxes
are specified to give the desired properties to the resulting weld metal. Alloy
steels can be welded with alloy steel electrodes using neutral fluxes or with
carbon steel electrodes using fluxes containing the alloying elements.
2.3 Fluxes
19
2.5 Operating Variables
1. Welding current
2. Type of flux and particle distribution
3. Welding voltage
4. Welding speed
5. Electrode size
6. Electrode extension
7. Type of electrode
8. Width and depth of the layer of flux
Welding current is the most influential variable because it controls the rate at
which the electrode is melted, the depth of penetration, and the amount of
base metal melted. If the current is too high at a given travel speed, the
depth of fusion or penetration will be too great. The resulting weld may
have a tendency to melt through the metal being joined. High current also
leads to waste of electrodes in the form of excess weld metal. This over
welding increases weld shrinkage and usually causes greater distortion. If
the current is too low, inadequate penetration or incomplete fusion may
result.
Arc voltage adjustment varies the length of the arc between the electrode
and the molten weld metal. If the arc voltage increases, the arc length
increases; if the arc voltage decreases, the arc length decreases.
The arc voltage has little effect on the electrode deposition rate which is
determined mainly by the welding current. The voltage principally
determines the shape of the weld bead cross section and its external
appearance.
20
Increasing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed will:
With any combination of welding current and voltage, the effects of changing
the travel speed conform to a general pattern. If the travel speed is
increased:
Electrode size affects the weld bead shape and the depth of penetration at a
given current. Small electrodes are used with semi-automatic equipment to
provide flexibility of movement. They are also used for multiple electrode,
parallel power equipment.
21
Electrode size also influences the deposition rate. At any given amperage
setting, a small diameter electrode will have a higher current density and a
higher deposition rate of molten metal than a larger diameter electrode.
However, a larger diameter electrode can carry more current than a smaller
electrode, so the larger electrode can ultimately produce a higher deposition
rate at higher amperage. If a desired electrode feed rate is higher (or lower)
than the feed motor can maintain, changing to a larger (or smaller) size
electrode will permit the desired deposition rate.
For a given electrode size, a high current density results in a ‘stiff' arc that
penetrates into the base metal. Conversely, a lower current density in
the same size electrode results in a ‘soft’ arc that is less penetrating.
The width and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appearance
and soundness of the finished weld as well as the welding action. If the
granular layer is too deep, the arc is too confined and a rough weld with a
rope-like appearance is likely to result. The gases generated during welding
cannot readily escape, and the surface of the molten weld metal is
irregularly distorted. If the granular layer is too shallow, the arc will not be
entirely submerged in flux. Flashing and spattering will occur. The weld will
have a poor appearance, and it may be porous.
22
Figure 7 Effect on submerged Arc Operating Variables
23
24
3. GAS-SHIELDED METAL-ARC WELDING
Known in the USA as Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) this process can be
further distinguished by the character of the shielding gas: inert or
chemically active. This results in the terms Metal-Arc Inert Gas (MIG) and
Metal-Arc Active Gas (MAG) welding. This process is now in common use
having displaced some of the more traditional manual welding techniques.
In this process, the arc, surrounded by a protective gas, is struck between a
consumable wire electrode and the work.
The process is suitable for welding aluminium, magnesium alloys, plain and
low-alloy steels, stainless and heat-resistant steels, copper and bronze, the
variations being filler wire and type of shielding gas.
In addition, a shielding gas or gas mixture is fed to the gun together with
welding current supply, cooling water flow and return (if the gun is water
cooled) and a control cable from the gun switch to control contactors (see
Figures 8 and 9).
25
Figure 9 Gas metal arc welding terminology
Pure argon cannot be used as a shielding gas for mild, low-alloy and
stainless steel because of arc instability but now sophisticated gas mixtures
of argon, helium, carbon dioxide and oxygen have greatly increased the
range of the process. Carbon dioxide alone is widely employed as a shield
when welding carbon and low alloy steels. The method has many
applications and its use is likely to increase in the future.
3.2 Electrodes
The composition of the electrode and base metal should be as nearly alike
as practicable. In some cases this requirement can be met but in others, to
obtain satisfactory welding and weld metal characteristics, an appreciable
composition change is needed. Deoxidisers and other scavengers are
nearly always added to minimise porosity or to ensure that the presence of
oxygen, hydrogen or nitrogen is neutralised. These gases may be part of
the shielding gas or reach the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere.
In steel electrodes, deoxidisers may be Mn, Si or Al, in Nickel alloys Ti or Si
and in Copper alloys Ti, Si or P. Their use is especially important with
shielding gases containing oxygen.
Manganese and silicon are used as deoxidisers in many cases in steel but
triple deoxidised wire using aluminium, titanium and zirconium gives high-
quality welds and is especially suitable for use with CO 2 gas shield.
Generally wire diameters are quite small compared with other types of
welding, ranging from 1.0 mm to 1.6 mm, although up to 3.0 mm or down to
0.5 mm may be used occasionally. The high currents employed in MIG and
MAG welding combined with the small diameter wire result in very high
melting rates varying from about 40 mm/sec up to 340 mm/sec. The wires
must therefore be supplied in long continuous strands, suitably hardened
(stiffened), for non-stop smooth feeding through the equipment. Ferrous
wires are usually coated with copper to provide some corrosion resistance
and to improve electrical contact in the welding equipment.
26
3.3 Transfer Modes
The type of gas being used as a shield greatly affects the values of current
at which spray transfer occurs but they are usually more than 200 amps.
Much greater current densities are required with CO 2 than with argon
mixtures to obtain the same droplet rate. The arc is continuous during
operation, arc energy output is high, the rate of deposition of metal is high,
penetration is deep and there is considerable dilution from the parent metal.
If current becomes excessively high, turbulence can be induced in the gas
shield, leading to oxidation, and oxide film entrapment in the weld metal
when welding aluminium. For spray transfer there is a high voltage drop
across the arc (30-45 V) and a high current density in the wire electrode
making the process suitable for thicker sections, mostly in the flat position.
The high currents used produce strong magnetic fields and a very
directional arc. With argon shielding the forces on the droplets are well
balanced during transfer so that they move smoothly from wire to work with
little spatter. With CO2 shielding the forces on the droplet are less balanced
so that the arc is less smooth and spatter tendency is greater.
27
(a) Spray transfer: arc volts 27-45 V. Shielding gases: argon, argon- 1 or
2% oxygen, argon- 20% CO2, argon- 2% oxygen- 5% CO2. High current and
deposition rate, used for flat welding of thicker sections
(b) Short-circuit or dip transfer: arc volts 15-22 V. Shielding gases as for
spray transfer. Lower heat output and lower deposition rate than spray transfer.
Minimises distortion, low dilution. Used for thinner sections and positional
welding of thicker sections
28
3.3.2 Short Circuit or Dip Transfer
With lower arc volts (15-22V) and currents usually less than 200 amps,
transfer takes place in globular form but with intermittent short-circuiting of
the arc (see Figure 10b). The wire feed rate must just exceed the burn-off
rate so that the intermittent short-circuiting will occur. When the wire
touches the pool and short-circuits the arc there is a momentary rise of
current, which must be sufficient to make the wire tip molten, a neck is then
formed in it due to magnetic pinch effect and it melts off in the form of a
droplet being sucked into the molten pool aided by surface tension. The arc
is then re-established, gradually reducing in length as the wire feed rate
gains on the burn-off until short-circuiting again occurs. The power source
must supply sufficient current on short-circuit to ensure melt-off or otherwise
the wire will stick in a solidified weld. It must also be able to provide
sufficient voltage immediately after short-circuit to re-establish the arc.
but will be about 50 to 200 times per second. The heat output of this type of
arc is much less than that of the spray transfer type and makes the process
suitable for the welding of thinner sections and for all positional welding, in
addition to multi-run thicker sections, and it gives much greater welding
speed than metal-arc-welding with covered electrodes on light gauge steel,
for example. Dip transfer has the lowest weld metal dilution value of all the
arc processes. However, welds may be more prone to lack of fusion defects,
particularly when CO2 is used as the gas shield.
In order to keep stable welding conditions with a low voltage arc (17-20 V)
which is being rapidly short-circuited, the power source must have the right
characteristics. If the short-circuit current is low the electrode will freeze to
the plate when welding with low currents and voltages. If the short-circuit
current is too high a hole may be formed in the plate or excessive spatter
may occur due to scattering of the arc pool when the arc is re-established.
1. During short-circuit the current must increase enough to melt the wire
tip but not so much that it causes spatter when the arc is re-
established.
2. The inductance of the circuit must store enough energy during the
short-circuit to help to start the arc again and assist in maintaining it
during the decay of voltage and current
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3.3.3 Semi-short Circuiting Arc
This system allows all-position welding at higher energy levels than short
circuit transfer. The power source provides two current levels, a steady
‘background’ level too low to produce spray transfer and a ‘pulsed peak’
current which is superimposed on the background at regular intervals. The
pulsed peak is well above the transition current and usually one drop of
metal is transferred during each pulse. The combination of two current
levels produces a steady arc with axial spray transfer at currents below
those required for conventional spray arc welding.
As oxygen and CO2 are not inert gases the term Metal-Arc Inert Gas (MIG)
is not applicable when either of these gases is mixed with Argon, or CO 2 is
used on its own. The term Metal-Arc Active Gas (MAG) should be used in
these cases, if greater distinction is required than that provided by the
general term ‘Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding’.
Carbon Dioxide CO2 has the advantage of being the cheapest shielding
gas and it can be used for welding both alloy and plain carbon steels up
to 0.4%C. There is some dissociation of CO 2 in the arc producing carbon
monoxide and oxygen which requires the filler wire to be adequately
deoxidised to prevent porosity. Some wires rely solely on Mn and Si for
this deoxidation. Others include the more efficient elements Al, Ti and Zr
in varying proportions. Generally the arc is less smooth with CO 2 than
with Ar-CO2 and Ar-O2. The arc conditions are more critical and there is
more spatter.
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Argon plus 5% CO2 or Argon + 20% CO2 for steel improves the wetting
action, reduces surface tension and makes the pool more fluid. Both
mixtures are excellent with spray or dip transfer, they give a smoother
less critical arc than pure CO2 and reduce spatter; but naturally they are
more expensive than pure CO2.
Recommended gases and gas mixture for various metals and alloys are
shown in Table 8 below:
Metal Type Gas Shield Remarks
Carbon and low- CO2 For dip transfer, and spray transfer spatter
alloy steels problems. Use deoxidized wire.
Ar-5%CO2 - 2%O2
Stainless Steels Ar-1/2%O2 Spray transfer
75%He 23.5%Ar High quality dip transfer. For thin sections
1.5%CO2 and positional work.
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3.5 Operating Variables
An increase in arc length, that is the distance from the electrode tip to the
work, will cause an increase of arc voltage and vice-versa. In practice any
such changes would be instantly corrected by the constant voltage supply
system.
3.5.3 Current
If all other variables are held constant, welding current varies with the wire
speed or melting rate. At lower amperage ranges the relationship is nearly
linear but in the upper ranges this ceases to be so largely due to resistance
heating of the electrode ‘stick out’ beyond the contact tube. Generally,
increase in welding current alone will -
A decrease in speed will increase the deposit of the filler metal per unit
length producing a large shallow weld pool. The welding arc impinges on
this pool rather than the base metal as it advances. This limits penetration
but gives a wide weld bead. Increase in speed will reduce the thermal
energy transmitted to the base metal and melting is therefore slowed and
restricted to the surface. Thus both penetration and bead width are
decreased.
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3.5.5 Electrode Extension
Advantages:
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Limitations:
1. Welding equipment is more costly, complex and less portable than that
used for Manual Metal Arc welding.
4. Weld metal cooling rates are higher owing to the absence of slag,
affecting the metallurgical and mechanical properties of the weld.
This GMAW process has not displaced Submerged Arc and electroslag
methods for welding thick steel sections but complements them. It offers
the most competitive method for repetition welding and thicknesses up to 75
mm can be joined in steel using fully automatic heads.
Flux-cored arc welding offers two major process variations that differ in the
method used to shield the arc and weld pool from atmospheric
contamination (oxygen and nitrogen). One type, self-shielded, protects the
molten metal to some extent through the decomposition and vaporisation of
the flux core by the heat of the arc. The other type, gas shielded, makes
use of a protective gas flow in addition to the flux core action to shield the
arc and the weld pool. With both methods, the electrode core material
provides a relatively thin slag covering to protect the solidifying weld metal.
In the gas shielded method, the shielding gas (usually, but not exclusively,
carbon dioxide) protects the molten metal from the oxygen and nitrogen of
the air by forming an envelope around the arc and over the weld pool (see
Figure 11). Little need exists for denitrification of the weld metal because
nitrogen from the air is mostly excluded. Although most of the air is
excluded, some oxygen is present in the protective atmosphere. It may be
present as an additive to argon or from dissociation of CO 2 to form carbon
monoxide and oxygen. The compositions of the electrodes are designed to
tolerate small amounts of oxygen in the shielding gas. Thus, flux-cored
electrodes are normally designed specifically either to be self-shielding or
for use with gas shielding.
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In the self-shielded method, (see Figure 12) although some shielding is
obtained from vaporised flux ingredients there is greater need for the
addition of deoxidizing and denitrifying constituents to the filler metal and
flux. This explains why self-shielded electrodes can operate in the strong air
currents frequently encountered when welding outdoors.
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The self-shielded method is used with long electrode extensions (20-95
mm) which tend to produce shallow weld beads whereas the gas-shielded
method with electrode extensions 19-38 mm is suited to the production of
narrow deeply penetrating welds. The process may be used to weld plain
carbon and low alloy steels and stainless steels. Cored wires may contain
proportions of metal powder to improve deposition rates. Such wires may
be Argon/20% CO2 gas shielded with the electrode DC negative to give a
smooth arc with little spatter. Cored wires of all types can usually be applied
to welding in all positions.
A major advantage of cored over solid wires is the ability to change the weld
metal composition by alloy additions to the flux. This has therefore provided
a variety of consumable compositions on a scale similar to SMAW (MMA).
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4. TUNGSTEN INERT GAS ARC WELDING
Known in the USA as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), TIG welding is a
process where melting is produced by heating with an arc struck between a
non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work-piece. Inert shielding of
the electrode and weld zone is necessary to prevent oxidation of the
tungsten electrode (see Figure 13). Filler metal may or may not be needed.
Tungsten is used because its melting point is 3370°C, well above any other
common metal.
The TIG process is very good for joining thin base metals and as the
electrode is not consumed, fusion alone, without the addition of a filler
metal, may be employed if desired. It is suitable for almost all metals but is
not generally used for those with low melting points such as Lead and Tin.
The method is especially useful in welding the reactive metals with very
stable oxides such as Aluminium, Magnesium, Titanium and Zirconium. A
very high quality weld is normally produced and it is often used for joining
very expensive metals and for critical service uses.
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Process limitations are:
(3) Inert gases are expensive, usually being Argon or Helium, or a mixture
of the two.
For these reasons TIG welding is generally not competitive with other
methods for welding heavier gauges of metal.
(1) Generally the best welding results are obtained with DC electrode
negative.
(4) The current carrying capacity of a positive electrode is about one tenth
that of a negative one and it is therefore limited to welding sheet metal.
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5. AUTOMATIC WELDING
The processes, namely TIG, MIG and CO 2 (gas shielded metal arc) with
their modifications, are extensively used fully automatically. Heads are now
available which, by changing simple components, enable one item of
equipment to be used for MIG (inert gas), CO 2 and tubular wire, and
submerged arc processes.
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6. ELECTROSLAG WELDING
Developed in Russia, the Electroslag process is used for butt welding steel
sections usually above 60 mm in thickness although plates down to 10 mm
thick have been welded. The sections to be joined are fixed in the vertical
position and the part of the joint line where welding is to commence, is
enclosed with water-cooled copper plates or dams which serve to confine
the molten weld metal and slag between the edges of the plates (see Figure
14). The dams are pressed tightly against each side of the joint to prevent
leakage. There may be one or more electrode wires depending upon the
thickness of the section and they are fed continuously from spools. The
self-adjusting arc is struck on to a starting plate beneath a coating of powder
flux which is melted in about half a minute. The arc becomes extinguished
and the current is then transferred, not as an arc but through the liquid slag,
which gives the same order of voltage drop as would occur across the arc.
Further melting results from resistance heating of the liquid slag.
Preparation of the faces to be welded is not critical and a flame cut surface
is quite acceptable. The slag temperature is about 1900°C internally.
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Figure 15 Consumable guide layout showing water-cooled dams
If a plain uncoated guide tube is used, flux is added to cover the electrode
and guide end before welding commences. Otherwise, the process is
started and operated in a similar manner to normal electroslag welding.
Although there is no arc present after the starting phase of the process, the
slag surface of the molten pool should be viewed through dark glasses (as
in gas cutting) because of its brightness.
The equipment for welding is considerably simpler than that for normal
electroslag welding, chiefly because the welding head and wire feed
mechanism do not need to be moved up the joint as the weld is made. It is
possible to weld where there is access from one side only, or indeed where
there is a permanent backing bar on both sides of the joint. It is cheaper and
more adaptable than other similar processes, faster than metal-arc welding
of thick plate, joint preparation is cheaper, uniform heat distribution through
the joint reduces distortion problems, and there are no spatter losses.
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7. ELECTROGAS WELDING
The equipment used for electrogas welding (see Figure 16) closely
resembles that for conventional electroslag welding. Therefore, a change
from one process to the other requires only a change from shielding gas to
flux, or from flux to shielding gas (80% Argon + 20% carbon dioxide). Thus
selection between processes is based on cost and application requirements,
not on capital expenditure. The system is capable of greater welding
speeds than the electroslag method and it can be stopped and restarted
more easily. Flux cored electrodes are sometimes employed.
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8. ONE SIDE WELDING WITH BACKING
The cost of back chipping and making a sealing run has become very high
especially in recent years so that it is desirable to weld plates and large
cylinders with runs from one side only. To achieve this a temporary backing
can be used, with which an acceptable under-bead profile is also obtained
even when fit-up and alignment are not good. The essential purposes of the
backing are to provide a base on which the first layer of weld is deposited
and to prevent the escape of molten metal through the root. Consideration
of the welded structure during the design stage can do much to relieve this
necessity, since it is often possible to arrange for joints and reinforcing
members to coincide and for the latter to act as built in backing bars.
Otherwise a backing strip should be made of metallurgically compatible
material and if it does not interfere with the operation of the structure it may
be left in place. Alternatively it must be removed. Figure 17a shows some
simple joints, some with backing, others such as fillet and lap joints which by
their design provide their own backing.
A backing weld onto a single groove at the back of the joint may sometimes
be adequate when applied by a different welding process, e.g. TIG, which
may remove the need for back chipping although some protection against
oxidation may be necessary by gas purging. The deposited metal must
naturally be the same as the weld proper.
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Figure 17(a) Types of butt welds
Ceramic tile backing may also be used for slag forming welded processes
and can be applied to vertical and horizontal vertical butt joints (see Figure
17b). The recess in the tile allows the slag to form below the under-bead
and it can be stripped off after removal of the adherent aluminium foil.
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Figure 17(c) Fibreglass tape covered backing strip
Backing systems can be applied to butt welding in all positions and are
widely used not only for flat welds where large pools of molten metal are
formed, but also for example, in circumferential pipe welds and long vertical
welds in ship building. They can be employed with any of the metal-arc
processes, with TIG welding and even with electrogas and electroslag
(consumable guide) welding.
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9 CONSUMABLES AND POWER SUPPLIES
The flux covering on modern electrodes tends to be porous and will absorb
moisture to some extent depending on the atmospheric humidity. Electrode
coverings of the cellulose type can absorb an appreciable quantity of
moisture with little effect on their properties. They should not be over dried
or charring of the coating may result. Mineral coated electrodes do not
naturally absorb so much moisture and can be dried out if damp. The
electrodes should be well spaced out in an oven and subjected to a
temperature of about 110°C for 10-60 minutes depending on their size.
Cellulose type electrodes will require only about 15 minutes to dry.
Care must also be given to fluxes supplied for submerged arc welding
which, although they may be dry when packaged, may be exposed to high
humidity in store. In such cases they should be dried in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations before use, or porosity or cracking may
result.
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In general it is a wise welder who studies and follows the manufacturer's
recommendations for consumables.
This unit will maintain an almost constant arc voltage irrespective of the
current flowing. The wire feed motor has an adjustable speed control with
which the wire feed must be pre-set for a given welding operation. Once
pre-set the motor feeds the wire to the arc at constant speed. For the arc to
function correctly the rate of wire feed must be exactly balanced by the
burn-off rate to keep the arc length constant. Suppose the normal arc
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length is that with voltage V M indicated at M in diagram (a), and the current
for this length is I M amperes. If the arc shortens (manually or due to slight
variation in motor speed) to S (the voltage is now V S) the current now
increases to IS, increasing the burn-off rate, and the arc is lengthened to M.
Similarly if the arc lengthens to L, current decreases to I L and burn-off rate
decreases. and the arc shortens to M.
With this system the DC supply is obtained from a welding generator with a
drooping characteristic or more usually from a transformer-rectifier unit. The
characteristic curve of this type of supply (see Figure 18b) shows that the
voltage falls considerably as the current increases, hence the name. If
normal arc length M has voltage V M and if the arc length increases to L, the
voltage increases substantially to VL. If the arc is shortened the constant
current which is often given to this type of supply. In continuously fed
systems the variations in voltage due to changing arc length are fed through
control gear to the wire feed motor, the speed of which is thus varied so as
to keep a constant arc length, the motor speeding up as the arc lengthens
and slowing down as the arc shortens. With this arrangement, therefore, the
welding current must be selected for given welding conditions and the
control circuits are more complicated than those for the constant voltage
method.
High currents such as those used in submerged arc welding may cause the
phenomenon known as arc blow. Direct current flowing in a circuit produces
a magnetic field around the conductors and such a field can cause
deflection of the arc. Arc blow becomes progressively more uncontrollable
with a noisy, wavering arc and heavy spatter especially when approaching
the edges of the work or welding in enclosed corners. Arc blow does not
occur with AC owing to the constant reversal of current cancelling out the
effect.
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