LAVENDER INTERNATIONAL NDT LTD Radiographic Testing Theory Notes e@ This package has been designed to comply with the syllabus requirements of the major certification documents | of the industrial world: PCN; EN473; SNT-TC-1A; ASNT/ANSI CP 189; MIL STD 410; NAS 410; ISO 9712 and EN4179. This training programme is accredited by the British Institute of NDT. This package is regularly reviewed and amended as necessary, if you have any specific comments please bring them to the attention of your tutor. Lavender International NOT Ltd Unit 7 Penistone Station Sheffield S36 6HP UK Tel: 01226 765769 Fax: 01226 760707a wb ©) a) FLGURES Fig ta CHAPTER L X AND GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY Int roduct Lon Properties of X and gamma rays Elect ro-magnet ic radiation Absorption & Scatter Stitferack Weld with crack ect romannetic spectrum Ae et Absorptinn aul scatter Graph kr y02/90 Issue 1hr/02/90 Fie ] issue Lt. Nagkoy Suit At ANGLE Y To Rav Beam Bean Dieectios — Naeeow Suis Ww wiDTH 9. AneLe To Beam dad. LenGre if (Year Ins Pee ACE Beam Ditee |tron | Cence b) | ae 1 Ww Wibtu | Qo duece To CRACK od LenGTH a = SQ NYBr /02/9¢ 159, Further properties of X and gamma rays are directly related to the Issue 1 radiography of materials 1) they travel in straight limes and obey the inverse square Law. 2) they travel at the speed of Light, with a constant amplitude. 3) they affect photographic emulsions 4) they produce visible fluorescence when incident on certain substances such as calcium (ungstate and zine fluoride. (fluorescent screens) 5) they cause the emission of photo-clectrons from certain metals. This property is wsed effectively when lead screens ace placed on either side of photographic film to intensify the image. 6) they Will pass through dense material during which absorpeion and scatter will occur, ‘The absorption and scatter is dependent on the density and the thickness of the material which is being radiographed. The ahsorprion is directly related to the mass absorption coofficent X and gamma rays ace situated at the short wavelength band of the | a Spectra of Electromagnets reaiation 7 f wow 10 wy © ow hg B] | ‘ % ie oda “ 10" wu u ow | Q ely ‘02/90 tssue t The de Brogite equation shous that a particle of mass - m, moving will, under certain conditions, have a characteristic with a velocity ~ wavelength ~ where Planks constant These electro-magnetic vibrations are produced both by x-ray tubes and by gamma ray sources (isotopes) and have many propertics directly related to the use of the radiographic technique, THE PROPERTIES OF X AND GAMMA RAYS OF THE SAME FREQUENCY ARE IDENTICAL These discussions show that electro-magnetic radiations (Light, X-rays and radio waves) 1. travel at a caustant speed (the speed of Light) 2. ae transverse waves, parvicle motion is at right angles to the direction of propogat ion 3. may be considered as a simple wave motion or as a particle motion (photon quanta) depending on che devieed cheater ical explanation. 4. can travel through a vacuum 6. follows the formula © = ON where © © sound velocity Capeed of Ligne) & £ frequency A vedensen , Ince © 4 constant (eo 1 a 1 the fo aheays propre tonal co A UMORT WAU LLENGTHE SEREEEIES a MiG PEbuuESE ALONG WAVED ERO TY SPEOERIRS & LOW FREQUE1 nevyoe sy) Issued Absorpt Lon Dense metals absorb x-rays (photons, packets of energy) more than Light metals. These x-rays are transformed during the passage through 2 material by tonisation. The formulae which relates the transmission of an incident x-ray through a material is given by: -at le = Intensity of the transmitted ray lo = Intensity of the incident ray (= thickness of the gaterial a + Linear absorption coefficient However tt is more convenient, when x-ray ahsorption Ls to be considered, 10 use the mass absorption coefficient a where 4 linear absorption coefficient » ® density See Fin ba This introduction of density shows that tL. an the density of the material increases en. luminium to steel the absorption of x-rays also increases. and 2. that as the thickness of a particular material ineteases so does the absarprien. Bag ihae vrvo2sag Tasue Scatter The x-ray on tts passage through a material is absorbed, but some of these x-rays (photons) are changed by Lonisation (product lon of tons). This process is complex and causes scatter of the beam. The main types of scatter in industrial radiography are L. photo-elect ric absorption 2. Compton scattering 3. pair production 1. The photo-electric effect is the emmission of electrons from matter caused by the reaction of electro-magnetic radiations (photons) of certain s photon energy levels are generally Low (10-500kv). onergy levels The photon gives up all its energy when the removal of the electron from the atom eceus 2. The Compton effect 15 a logical extension but it is covered with higher enerny photons. All thw enurry cannet be absorbed by matter and enerny Jett over, the excens energy Let! aver takes the form of a new photon which has a Larger Save lemeh Clawee energy) and muses oft an i nee path A photon can go Chroust several Compton effects betore i in finally absorbed in Che photo clecerie effect, The Complon eftect as sigmeticant in cudust rial radiography because of the production of new photons having a longer wavelength moving in a new dicection. The imieial direct beam 1s called permery cadiation, aCrer the Compton effect it became: scattered Fadiatian, which may be tered, side or back cates ,wryo. CHAPTER. 1 EXAMPLES I. What adverse effecrs do the x and gamma rays have on the body? 2. Whar logal document refers 10 this problem? 3. Explain why radiography may miss a crack in a weld. Use diagrams in your answec 4. What 18 jonisarson, how 1s this physical property used 10 detect x and gamma tay Dd. Share > properties of sand gamma cays: ©. What ty electro magnet ie cadiation, which basic formulac relares thy Leequency velocity and wavelensin of electro magner ie waves Fo Mar as hank host annt Bo Stare the absarprian tarmetaes How rs the corm density Inteaduecd cite the teem lve? u. What sutton HO. Whar i rhe dit terence berueen Ghe phore-elecrer. and Th Brom tte bec tra macnen oe cpert ram, Fig ay exp darn ihe , HT Rerenes enween coneie wud visible tan cn terms ot Erequency ans wr cetemurty VA Miu ane tke + fre ohne ey he weed haa HTeceramagaen bate Te Une cnciny et etectrasimee i radnanten ts peopert renalkr yoey issue CHAPTER 1 ANSWER TRUE OR FALSE 1. A cadiograph is not a permanant cecord 2. X & gamma rays can he derecred by The senses 3. There are siescr legal requirements when celare To the use of lonising radatt ions - 4 Radiography will readily derect valumerric Flaws os 5. Radiography will ceadily detect planay flaws 6 lonisarion is a process which forms electec ally charged atoms - Fk Gamma cays are harmful) te humans - Bo Elech ro mayner ie waves travel fo sr ranghe fe bar do nat obey rhe dawere sate fans 9. ETeer re magnet ie waves reavel fee sapien oat Digit with var yen, amplreude: a 1X amma rays Frayed an sreaaste Fines teas have f1E ferent amplitudes TH AvCord ing ta rhe spectrum af electroomanner fad atnan, wavebeni hand t Bes ane ner neta et , oe Bae ae cn aaed ah one Leen oo Pad Of Dine beer ro mapnen ie cee ten La Ten Phere: may ne used te web ee tbe : Pre bece te manent is rattan ea - Mek RD emer Ko hanks canta Pheer ices23 wryoey (KOENTGEN Rays) tissue PRODUCTION OF X-RAY X-rays are produced when electrons having 2 high energy, bombard a target. Fig 2. The electrons are generated by heating a filament (cathode), . these electrons are accelerated within a vacuum tube and bombard a tungsten target! (anode). The x-rays which ave generated have a spectrum of energies (range of wavelengths) consisting of a continuous wave band whose shortest wave Length is determined by the voltage applied 10 the anode which may be 50,000 10 10,000,000 volts normaily referred to as SOKv (kilo volts) and 10 MeV (mega volts) respectively. The and increase in voltage will increase the encrgy of the x ays decrease (hei vavelength. X-rays may be normally berveen 50 - 400 Kv whilst high encegy x-rays cover the range I-10 Mev. The difference between the x-tay production of wocmal and thigh rn the method by which the elecrrow: are accelerared Fig 2 X- Lay Toke energy is Lapse of Xeray tahe.test ete preove)2.9 kr/0279 tesue The increase im voltage will increase both the quality } (ability t@ peneteare) and quantity (amount) of x-rays available. However i1 is vital 10 understand that an increase in quantity (milii amps) will nor increase the x-ray penetration. Fig 4a & b == Proton encvey. fic bo Swan L © ig. igh. Effect of. @) kobe valtage & lb) ube. everent. on. the varialion. ioLensily wilh have of an Aerial iy702 /9¢ 27 (ssue 1 Electcieal efreuite The electrical circus! vbech +s used 10 produce x-rays is dependant on both economic and weight Cactors The most simple circuit 1s self rectification, however the constant potential tube produces a continual supply of x-rays. 1. Self Recrification Fig ba When the filament in the x-ray tube 1s heared, elect cons are given off. These electcons have a negative charge, the anode has an applied porentsal which on the positive part of the cycle attracts the negative electrons Fig GA QuzPe 7 FR2.9 wrs02/90 Ussue 1 LINEAR ACCELERATORS, Used for, in general, steel thickness > 90mm bul advantageous and economic Cor Less thickness although slight ly inferior on defect sensitivity Greater thicknesses require greater energics, and this means the need Cor higher outputs, x-ray machines. e.g. 200 to 500 r/min at 1 metre 5 MeV accelerator - 10" of steel 10,000 r/min at 1 metre 16-20 MeV accelertor - 20" of steel GT Limene Nececetator n pS ee SR rir, t OTE HL: id@—ilatI Benton Perfect ein Paice modules — Pouge Basertae v Xieeai cee gies Hoon bo MeVRevo. a wrrozssy ssue 1 Garin RAY SOURCES As discussed carlier (Cig 1.) the atom consists of a nucleus with orbiting electrons it is the nucleus which is the basis for the production of gamma rays atom Simple basic clement consists of: proton - + charge - heavy particle neutron ~ no charge - heavy particle electron ~ ~ charge - Light particle A complete atom must have an equal number of protons and electeans but Che number of neutrons may be different The number of protons determines the kind of clement. Foe Ko 2% to No of PROTONS ne determines the type of element A No > No of PROTONS 4 NEUTRON MANS me determines different atoms of the same element. WITH COMMON 2.NO, BUT DIFFERENT 4 xox ARE CALLED IseTares ADIEICM) reatpes are made by bashers peo te frerens Ff teutrons escens meutcons. eo. be C192 aa Vis penat 192Re /02/90 2.13 : ; This statement means that an isotope may only be used to examine a specific range of thicknesses. If work 1s to be done outside this specific range, the isotope has to be changed or otherwise inferior rdiographs are obtained. Fig 9. Properties of Gamma vays Each isotope has its own individual characteristsc, these ace vital Lo Lhe choice made by the radiographer. 1. Gamma ray energy (equivalent Kilo voltage) emitted by the radsation for a particular application, unique to the particular isotope 2. Walf Life - the time in which the amount of the vadio-active material decays to 1/2 of its initial value (a 7 Becquerel (1 curie dx oy BD. bocquerel/gram) The Table gives a qutde en gamma sources and their ese im indust cial radronrapty Fig 9.(see kodak guide Table 111) Gamma Sources [ 1G 4 I 9 Chaactasinice ef grea sautcesANSWER 1. The atom cons 2. Protons have 3. Neutrons have the number of >. Elect rons are b, Ele 1. Electrons are charge on the 8 X-rays consis (from shore re ¥. Increase at & rhe energy of 1) tnereasiag tt intensity of Hh Wnite eadiany ke oray energie Lang wave bonis tet vad Gata ly Gt CHAPTER 2 TRUE OR FALSE Ysts of 4 negaty ve a po systom ihe elect cons nenerared wiven ott acceberated by protons. cane of and electrons charge charge number of protons equals by hearing a Ci lament from the anode placing @ negar ise bay wavelengths Furrent inereasen the bee tad togeaph tie ott te tadiograpt iiemn of and deere R1702/90 Issue 1.Rr y02/90 tasue 1 cuarter 2 EXAMPLES. What are ihe particles of matter which make up the atom? Use diagrams in your ansuor 2. When is an atom considered 10 be in a stable form? 3, Describe how x-rays up tu 250 Kv are produced, Use a simple diagram Lo show ihe most significant fea tures 4. What is the difference Ueruoon characteristic and white radiation? Use diagrams 1 vour auswer 5. An increase in voltage 1m vn e-eay tube will alter bork the quality and quantity of © rays. Discuss Ihis statement 6. How is the quantity of yas trom an xray tube altered? Use diageams in your an 2. Refer re find. Hint nie slit terence Herween a high and low seusitivity teehnique! what Thvekness of steel can be eadiogcaphed using a low semitivity technique? 8. What ds diE ference hewmen a elt and cont invousty eect fied xray tube! 9, Why ts AL necessary tn Mave Nigh energy equipment ! HO. What san mit ene . Berays ate produced by the devay ul ain rsorone ant are Feleased Hn a Sper E Ein energy tanh, What are eNe rapore ane factors rah Fat enona) b) a a wrs02790 va Issue 1 cuaeTER 3 X-ray Cilm Density - characteristic curve Contrast Intensifying screens, fluoroscopic, metal, Eluorometallic xoray film characteristic curve contrast ~ lower part of curve contrast mina tlm type stow & fas1 contrast Lar itade Film type stow @ Cast Culm speed tluoroscapy lead sevensws #702790 wet Photographic process lo To = Intensity of tnetdent beam opacity = =~ 1 It = Intensity of transmitted beam DENSITY = log lo to = U t If the x-ray film transmits all the incident Light chen t= 1 o ot Then D log 1 ° 10 If che x-ray film transmits 1/10 of the incident Light 1 7 7 = Then D log 10 * 1 to bora 1 Films which cransmit ees iLL have lo 100 1090 10,000 ties of 1.2.3.4 (i.e. tag 10, 100, 1900, 10000), to. Characteristic Curve © iy, The response of phoruysaphic Chim to x or gamma rays 1s expressed by a simple graph of Density D against Log lo slative because there ts noe practical (relative exposure) unit by uhich various expasures can be expressed Fin 2tasue L Contrast Fig 3 § FB 4 The stope of the curve 38 tel ated to the contrast of the jmage. The greater tne slope the greater the density difference corresponding 10 a given change )P exposure. For ont imum defect gerection the slope should Pe 2S great as possible Measurement of Contrast Ay any density D the contrast 59 obtained by measuring the tangent vo the characteristyc Curve in terms of density and 108 exposure. The slope ts called the gamma of the film high gamma - Nigh contrast Low gamma - Low contrast oz - Dt Cont cast log E2 - tog EE Gan 8 On bic % Dere@HiwwATton OF CoutRASt 2 Tne [oe oF Ie Foe Tue oe 0 Curve log hit og RELATIVE. EAPOSURELatitude See fig 5 Latitude is the range of thicknesses covered on the x-ray film, 1. is usual to specify a particular density range Fic S Corcentison of Cunencr 1S Te Coeves 4 wo Seow Frum la Gwe Grain do : Hic Couzens’ pNageow (Carune & wjre OV to wevsoesy Issue |Fluorescent Sereens These consist of minute grains of salt, esther calesum tungstate or zinc sulphide which fluoresce under the action of x or gamma rays. There are a number of new screen materials which nay be used gadolinium being the Latest addition The fluorescence is ultraviolet Light which causes 2 considerable intensification on the film. The screens can be: a) high definintion or b) high speed (fine praan) THEY ARE NOT TO NE RECOMMENDED FOR GAMMA RADLOGKAPHY, BECAUSE THEY DECREASE THE TMAGE QUALITY, BUT 00 GIVE SHORTER EXPOSURE TIMES. 100 30 roo | 50 300 60 400 oo The screens sacrease the contrast, decrease the sharpness, and increase the graininess of the film image they ave used In confunctyon with spectal (tm used in Clucrecopy The Muoroscamie se rece Ciacroscopre image of the object ts Entensi tied’ aed viewed on a TY qantio. wr702790 Issue 1ersoery au Issue 1 Metal Screens Metal (Lead) screens consists of a thin picce of Lead foil and are generally used in pairs. The thickness which is used depends on quality of radiation used. Front screen .02 - .08 am Back screen 1mm The screens surface ave highly polished and must be kept in close contact with the film The result of using lead aceeens are: A small intensification due to primary vadiation and characteristic radiation trom the lead which affect the emulsion. 2. A considerable reduction im scattered radiation 3. No perceptable Joss in definition NB. Never employ salt screens waless the exposure conditions make their use essential. Always use bead screens above 120 - 130K and | back sereen € 120 FW Exposure without screens feation factor -- Exposure with screens Characteristic curves tory ray film expased atone and with lead seeonns at 200 KVRryop 3.13 Essue Fluorometallic Screens Consist of mixture of Lead (metal) and fluorescent (salt type) screens. There are different cypes of fluorometallic screens dependant on che nature of the radiation which is used to produced the radiograph. The lead ts said to absorb scattered radiation, whilst the fluorescent screen intensifies the radiation beam to shorten exposure. Exposure reduction from direct exposure film to fluorometallic is approx 1-5.40 Prroryy bss ue | Calcium rungs! ate, zinc fluoride and types of metal Fluoroscopy will show the radiograph of a moving imge on a 1¢lovison monitor Real time radiography may use an image-orthicon camera system and a video-tape recorder - Mo al sereens used in radiogeaphy may be used singly of in pairs - Lead screens will ceduce scatter Load screen: in paies should not be used ar less than OURS . exposure without screens Intensification tactoe © 2 ocssseeea2= exposure with screens Inrensificatson factor for lead sereens at 200Ky ms 20 Fluoromerit lie seceens consist of a mixture of salt and Yad, dependant on the quality of radiationR702 / Issue | The low sensitivity Fechnique described In 4 5. The const ant potent ial uait preduces 3 continua! supply of x-vays Bloments with a common % no., but a different A no MeV and can cadiograph sree berween Lo edt Eo Cne Z The penetrar ron of samme cays denen er eteRrvo2/90 4a Issue 1, CHAPTER 4 PROCESSING 1. Development 2. Fixing 3. Processing faults igures Fig 1. Layout of Darkrooma3 e The chemicals used 38 the process are? 1. a) deveoper agents pb) accelerator c) preservative d) restrainer 2. a) cinse of stop bath b) fixing cc) washing a) éeyine e Fic 1 Datekoom Lavoot Hawa PRocessinG beaapte of layout of a Radvegehtc Darkroom developone, » Winey USED IN {wRuStetRr702790 sue |. PREVIOUS EXPOSURE TO X-RAYS. Overall fog and images other than given by the specimen may be superimposed on the radiograph image if a film is exposed accidently to x-rays. Lt sometimes happens that films are accidently placed too neae to the x-ray plant ot to a source of gamma rays and spurious images appear on the films. The accumulated affect of several exposures may result in an image on a film even when it is kept at a considerable distance from the x-ray source RETICULATION. A net-like structure which is generally caused by difference in temperature between Lhe processing baths, the rinsing or the washing water. Serious cericulation shows as a roughening of the surface of the emulsion, Often, however, it appears only as a “grainy” appearance under a Jow power magnifying glass EXPOSURE TO FAULTY SAFELIGHT CAUSES GENERAL FOG Safelight lamps should be examined periodically to check thar the safelight and its housing do not transmit any unsafe Light. Deliberate exposure of a picce film, part of which is protected by black paper, for I minute at 3ft, from the safelight is the simplest test: Foging of the ‘ exposed area of the Film indicates unsafe safelight ing T OF WHOLE PLUM SPLASHES OF DEVELOPER BEFORE OEVELOPM BEGINS. Splashes of developer om an exposed film will sare development at the porars affected and these will, how wpa darker areas on the final tmaseRTy02/90 Issue 1 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES, 1, Mow is the latent image rendered visible For the radjographer? On what does film density (blackening) depend. 2. Deseribe the development process 3. Whar is the diffrence between a white and black pressure mack? 4. What is the purpose of a quality control graph? 5. Name 6 film processing faulis and describe how they are formed.1702/90 tssue 1 11. Inadequate agitation causes uneven development . 12. Splashes of developer and or fixer on the film does not cause processing faults& Definition Sensitivity Contrast In order to produce a high quality radiograph an intimate knowledge of factors affecting the visibility of detail in the radiograph is essential FACTORS AFFECTING SENSITIVITY ARE CONTRAST AND DEFINITION. Table 1 - Fig I Radiographic Sensitivity Factors Affecting Sensitivity a. Thickness differences a.Focal spot size Contrast Definiiion ya : \ L.subject 2.Film Geometric 2Geaininess | Cont rast Cont cast Factors, Factors | | Attected by Alfected by Affected by: | Attected by: ‘Type of film Scart ered radiation Reduced by: 2.Filver Foleed sereens: Density difference dAchivity of Specimen distance notte | d. Abrupt ness of film} c | developer Thickness mont VoMasks & | changes ta diaphram: specimen : | | in specimen character- istic curves b.Radiat ion b.Development |] b.focus film b. Type of quality Kv of Lime, temp & distance sereen x-rays, MeV of| agitation f gamma cays Inherent unsharp- d. beve Lop- i 81/02/90 Issue 1.Rry02/9 5.4 Issue Fic 2 Back Scatter X-ray tube X-ray tube Peim ALY Ra DiATION Twreenac SeatreR Film Lead Af Ne NK Bac see wooo TECNIQUE B Lean A&Sor’S Back SeatteR - Lenn Lerreg: Wuie IMAGE on Ficm of & D aA | von ContRagi Kook Conia:1/02/90 5.6 Issue 1. A coarse grain film is fast, only requires small exposure, but gives: 1. Low contrast 2, has a less marked slope:- a low gamma (film gradient) 3. has a wide latitude Fig 5 chapter 3 b. Development time, temperature and agitation will affect the Film contrast, e.g. at 68 deg F, development Limes of 2,4,6,8 minutes on a specific film show that optimum properties only occur after 5-6 minutes development time. c. The density of the film will affect sensitivity and the optimum film density has between 1.8 & 3.0 although high densities are acceptable provided that correct lighting 15 available for viewing 4. The activity of the developer must be continually checked by the use of film control stcips and tho calibrated densitometer. DEFINITION Goometeic Factors: ab & © The physics of shadow formation are significant im this concept. Fig 3a, shows tly time and effective size of the focal spot in an xecay lube. The effective size is used in geometric unsharpness calculations, Lt 1s measured usiap the : “pin hole camera’ reeknique Fin th iblusteares the method of working out Ue. the neomerric unsharpness, using similar CeianglesRY7/02/9 Issue 1 The maximum value of unsharpness allowed on an x-ray film is given in ASME V ARTICLE 2 and produced below. Material thickness Ug I oa maximum, mn i under 50 0.510 j 90 through 75 0.760 over 75 through 100 020 i [__ateater than 100 780 Note: Material thickness is the thickness on which the unsharpness is based 11 is obvious from this formulae that both the focus Film and the specimen (itm distances will alter geomet ric unsharpness 4. Abcupl changos in the specimen thickness in conjunction with a= © above will alter geometric unsharpness ©. Screen (film contrast is again an important factor, since it causes lack of continuous density on the film where screen and , {lm are not in conteet 2. Grarniness factors a. tyne of Film Flacne yiain = pooe derinstran 7ofine weain igh definition Films may be classified inte grata sine Follows5.10 21702790 Issue tL. EIG 4¢ FILM INHERENT UNSHARPNESS U, 10) 09] o¢| FILM UNSHARPNESS (mm) 02 Radiation Uy (mm) SO kV X-rays 0-03 0-05 0-09 0-12 OS 0-24 0-32 0-46 18 MV X-rays 0-80 31 MV X-rays 0-97 [ridium-192_ gamma rays 0-13 sesium=137 0:28 z 035 HALMSKAW. 200 400 X-RAY KILOVOLTAG: Graph of experimental values of filay unsharpness, UrRV/02/9 tssue 1 1, = THE KNOWN INTENSITY AT A KNOWN DISTANCE (0,). OD, = THE DISTANCE FROM ASOURCE WHERE INTENSITY IS KNOWN (|). = THE UNKNOWN INTENSITY AT A SECOND KNOWN DISTANCE. OD, = THE DISTANCE FROM A SOURCE AT WHICH YOU WANT TO FIND THE UNKNOWN INTENSITY. SOURCE.) ok threes 0 git eee Gade 2 enemies a 7 Ture Fokmucne 1S For Sacety DiStanuecs @ b) Ex Pofok ee CarcéucaTionS sy (D) (see ARovE FoR Trete — =\ 4 t 2 ( b ae ExPotuRt FoRMULAECHAPTER 5 ANSWER TRUE OR FALSE Contrast 1s affected by the focal spot size. Contrast is affected by the Film type. Contrast is made worse by the use of a filter Density difference on a film measures unsharpness Sensitivity is affected by contrast and definition Definition is reduced by incceasing the grain size of the film. Subject contrast is changed by increasing the film/focal spot distance. All scattered radiation is called secondary radiation All secondary vadiatson is back scatter. Lead filters may be used on the x-cay part and betucen the film and specimen Lo reduce scatter The light image of a letter B appears on a radiograph when checking for back scatter. You would accept the film. Collimating the x-ray beam will help to ceduce seatior, | A pinhole camera is not used Lo measure the size of the focal spot RT/02, IssueFig Fig Fig Fig Fig Pig Fig Fig Fig fie Fig 10. ne CHAPTER 6 MEASUREMENT OF EXPOSURE AND SENSITIVITY Exposure chart steel Exposure chart aluminium Wire CQL Step 1 QL BS & DIN wire sizes DIN types available 8S Lypes available british Step 1 QL American 1 QL Equivelont % [ Q 1 American Halmshaw pl63 Table 5.4 R1702/90 Issue 1.RT/02 791 Issue 1, CHAPTER 6 . EXAMPLES 1, What factors have to be considered when using an exposure chart? 2. What Kv is required to x-ray a 35mm steel weld using the formulae on 6.2? What Kv is requiced to x-ray 10mm of aluminium using this formulae? 3. Which 2 types of image quality indicators are used in radiography? How are they used? 4. & 20mm thick plate has a BS 3971 (1-7) wire 1.Q.1 placed on the top surface. The wire No. 5 is just visible, what is the % sensitivity, A 50mm thick plate has a DIN wire [..t. (1-7) placed on the surface. Wire no.3 is just visible, what is the 1.Q sensitivity and if necessary what action would you take Lo overcome the problem if the specification stated 2.0% 1.9.1. sensitivity. You are asked to obtain 2% sensitivity using ASME pencivameters, What thickness is required 10 obtain 2 2T on a specimen 50mm thick. Remember ASME [.Q.1. use the Inperial system, 7. & stephole plaque penct rameter is used, and an 1.9.1 sensitivity of 2.5% is obLained on a 25mm Uhick specimon What value would you expect if a DIN wire 1.Q.1 was used JT. requices te best Ubien vadingaphic Lochnique to oblarn rhe best LQ.t. sensicivicyRULO2/9 Issue 1 EXPOSURE CHART Radiation: X-RAY Material: ALUMINUM Film: CRONEX® NDT 35 FILM Film Density: 2. Distance: 36 inches Processing: Automatic processor; 95 sec. developer immersion time using "CRONEX” NOT ‘Autodeveloper (XIAD) at 86°F, or equiva: lent development. ‘Screens: Under 150 Kv—None Over 150 Kv-—Lead .005" F/.010"B Equipment: 360 Kv Cp 1 MILUAMPERE—MINUTES (MAM) os 10 48 20°85 ~*8 OS THICKNESS INCHES) Exposure Chart x-rays A useful formulae to arrive at a correct kiloveliage for specimens Jess than 50mm and assuming a time exposure of 20 MA ’ minutes is Vea bx Vv - Kilovolage a = mil dimer oes +H are constants (see aver)W702 /9¢ 6.5 Issue 1 Radiographic Sensitivity The purpose of a radiograph is to detect the presence of internal defects and is dependant on the regulation of contrast and defi nition of the radiographic image. Sensitivity is che criterion by which practical effects of contrast and definition (sharpness) can be assesed on the radiograph. The sensitivity of a radiograph is measured by an artificial technique called an “Image Quality Indicator" or “Penetrameter", which should be placed on the source side of the specimen at the edge of the area under examination when ever possible. In order to view radiographs the density should be 1.8 to 3.5 when viewed with lead screens. There are a number of categories |, WIRE - Those gauge sensitivity by a line discontinuity Models A.@andé = 6, thickness of letters = 2 Models Cané0=125, um ea + _| os3971 sis ia Wirestype sage quality indicator (iyofaa 5 ConratiSan 6.7 hs 4+ Dw Lol Wire No. fe pin unre No. Wire dia wire dia om mm { 1 2-7 .900 > sf 050 2.0 3 eo. te aq 5 | -@a0 S 5 o | 108 1.00 6 we B G-I2 ~50 9 10 1 ; i 25 iB 2a = ay Lor 2s : i: rr RT/02/¢ Issue |Rrsoas9 6.9 190 Issue 1 1¢8 Batis Stee Q Step No. | hole diameter Step No hole diameter step thickness step thickness 1 125 13 2.00 2 -160 14 2.50 3 =200 15 3.20 4 -250 16 4.00 5 -320 17 5.00 6 400 18 6.30 ? 500 8 -630 3 800 The plaque are a)so produced in copper and aluminium AMERICAN 1 QT (Ponetrmeter) ring Place Identification __ Numbers Here Minimum Penetroneter Thickness _0,005' Minimum Diomeler for 1T Hole 0.010" Minimum Diometer for 27 Hole 0.020" nienum Diorneter for 4T Hole_0.040 @ ote: shott be Teve and Normat to the Surface of the Penetrometer 0 Not Chomfer ToleranceCHAPTER 6 ANSWER TRUE OR FALSE 1. An exposure chart relates Kv exposure time and steel thickness. 2. An exposure chart does not depend on the type of Filnwhich is used. 3. The density value of the film must be specified on the chart. 4, The exposure time according 10 the chart, to radiogarph 3,0" of aluminium ai 200Kv is 15mAn REFER TO EXPOSURE CHART STEEL FOR 5 & 6 5. Using an exposure of 20mA min on stee] .75" tnick you would use 160kv. 6. At 250Kv a range of stecl thickness covered would be 1,0" to 1.5" using reasonable exposure times. REFER TO EXPOSURE CHART FOR ALUMINIUM FOR 7 & 8. 7, The exposure Lime to cadiograph 2.0" is 7 mAmin. The exposure would be 62mAmin at 140Kv if you wished lo increase film conte 8. You are asked to radiograph an aluminum casting to a high sensitivity level. The thickness range is 2.0" 10 2.25". You would use 200 Kv. 9. A back lead screen is not necessary for stec) tad iography Taree we Issue 1ISOTOPES USED IN RADIOGRAPHY ez 4 “F IRIDIUM | COBALT | YTTERBIUM | CAESIUM | SELENIUM 192 60 169 137 75 Half Life | 74Days | 5.3 Years 31 Days 30 Years | 120 Days Energy's Emitted 310-660 | 1170-1330 | 60-310 660 60-400 ky kv ky ky kv X-Ray Equivalent | 500 kv 1250 kv 145 kv 700 kv 217 kv Energy ___| __ a —— {| Appropriate Range of TI ness Sensitivity Technique | 20-90mm | 60.150mm | 2- 12mm | 30~ 100mm] 14-40mm. Class B | Low Sensitivity | | Technique | 25 100mm | 40-200mm | 1-tSmm | 20- 120mm] 10-4omm Class A N.B. The above range of thickness can be reduced if agreed by the contracting parties in accordance with BS EN 1435. Traing JSHO/3011981. EXPOSURE Ozomernic UNSHARPNESS Ug = GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS E=MxT FxT f= FOCAL spoT size b= er M = TUBE CURRENT (Ma) Ug = T = MATERIAL THICKNESS to nM \B (SECONDS) Dd D = SOURCE TO OBJECT DISTANCE @®rapiocrapnic sensirnery @recrrociry Law THINNEST VISIBLE WIRE. 199 — « sensrrrvry WHEN EXPOSURE 1 = EXPOSURE 2 MATERIAL THICKNESS My xT) = Mp xT) FROM EN 462-1 : 1994 Cy xT) = Cy xT, (C= SOURCE ACTIVITY - CURIES Wire no Wire Dia ‘mm aon w4 160 | wio o4o | wis 015 ws 125 | wil 032 | wi6 0.100 W6 1.00 | wi2 025 | wi7 0.080 063 3. INVERSE SQUARE LAW W7 080 | Wis 020 | wis 0. INTENSITY OF PI PONTO as bininoies ns Hie WR 0.63 WI4 0.16 | WI9 0.050 ‘SQUARE OF INCREASING DISTANCE. Ww) 0.50 OF t= erensiry Be eRe 8. SAFE WORKING DISTANCE (UNSHIELDED IN OPEN AIR) SAFE = \/INTENSITY (mSv) @ Im x 1000 DISTANCE 7.5 (wS¥) EXPOSURE VARIES DIRECTLY AS THE 9. INTENSITY AT Im FROM 1GBq )UARE OF THB DISTANCE 2 Dy & = posune IRIDIUM 192 - 130sv/tir hh B D = DISTANCE COBALT 60 - 350,.Sv/Hr 10. TENTH / HALF VALUE LAYERS (mm) - STEEL LEAD CONCRETE] \ \ LALALRSLAe4 tribium 192 [51] 16] 17] § lisel 49 COBALT 60 7% [22] 41] 13 fais] 66 150 kvp -[-[-[ 8} [a3 200 k¥p -[- | - [1B] T26 250 kVp -{-| + [af [28 11. DENSITY CONVERSION CHART Ist densit In deasty Density required 1S 20 25 3.0 0.50 5.0 aay 100 120 0.75, 26 39 49 60 1.00, Ww 1s 33 4.0 1.50 10 By Ww 14 2.00 07 10 oi 16 2.50 06 08 Lo 12 17S os 07 09 Mw 3.00 Os 06 08 1.0 3.50 04 0.6 07 09 375 04 Os 07 08 4.00 03 os 06 07