SATI PRATHA / PRACTICE

  

1.3 HISTORY

Submitted by

Devraj Agrawal

UID: UG21-08

Academic year (2021-2022)

B.A.LL.B. (Hons.) Semester- I

Submitted to

Prof. Nitu Kumari

Assistant Professor of History

MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, NAGPUR

 TABLE OF CONTENT

Page
Sr. no Topic
number

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Aims of the project 3

1.3 Research objectives 3

1.4 Research questions 3

1.5 Research methodology 3

1.6 Review of literature 4

1.7 Hypothesis 4

2.1 Meaning, emergence and origin of Sati tradition 4

2.2 Status of Women in Society 6

2.3 Historical background and sati in religious text 6

2.4 Sati in Medieval India 8

2.5 Sati in Modern India 9

2.6 10
Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
2.7 Impact of sati Pratha on Society 10

2.8 Indian constitution and prohibition of harmful tradition against women 11

3.1 Conclusion 12

3.2 Reference 13

1
1.1 Introduction

Hinduism is one of the world's oldest and greatest faiths, and it has been practised throughout
the Indian subcontinent for a long time. It is a way of life deeply rooted in Indian history,
culture, and custom. The term "Hindu" is derived from the word "Indus" and refers to the
civilisation of the Indus Valley.
Samskara1 is a phrase that many Hindus believe in and was derived from Hinduism. The
Sanskara term is used in Hinduism to denote significant Hindu traditions and rituals. One of
the meanings of Sanskara is to cleanse oneself physically and psychologically. In Hinduism,
there are several ceremonies such as-
When a woman is pregnant, a ceremony called Garbhadhana is done to ensure the health of
her unborn child.
Namkarana is a new-born infant naming ritual.
When a kid is ready for formal education, he or she is called Vidyaarambha
Lavish nuptial ceremony- Vivaha
Antyeshti- last rites of passage or Hindu corpse ceremonies done after death
Sati is a component of Antyeshti, the last ritual. Sati custom holds that the wives wash their
sins and misdeeds by entering the funeral pyre with their husband's remains. Sati gives
women opportunity to thrive in society. Stridharma for women implies devotion to one's
spouse; a husband for women is desired of god for her; and the Sanskrit term for "husband" is
"swami," which literally means "lord and master," and the husband is himself lord for her and
husband (Pati) as well. Sati is still regarded positively by some Hindus today. 2 Pativrata is
devotion to spouse, and after he dies, she goes in the burning fire of husband as a devotion,
and women who do the same are known as Sativrata. This devotion raises her to goddess
status, deserving of worship. The dilemma here is whether Sati is a good wife since her
devotion turns her into a Sati goddess. Is she a goddess worthy of worship? Is it all about
making money for the family and the village?

1.2 Aim of the project

1
Samskaras or sanskaras are mental impressions, recollections, or psychological imprints in Indian philosophy
and religion.
2
“A Socio-Legal Examination of the Sati Tradition - Widow Burning in India.”

2
This article follows the history of sati practise from its inception to its abolition, attempting to
explore religious taboos, practises, and attempting to maintain human values, particularly
those of women, in societal situations. This isn't simply a storey; it's also too instructive,
jolting all sensible brains out of their slumber.

1.3 Research objectives

 To preserve human principles, especially those of women, in social situations. It is

said that "man is the crown of creations" when it comes to living a healthy and happy
life. This is not simply a slogan; every member of society must live with
understanding, fraternity, and patience in the face of all religious laws, taboos, and
rites.
 To discuss the history of the Sati practise and its religious beliefs among Indian
Hindus. In addition, we shall examine the perspectives and thoughts of Indians and
British people about Sati.
 To understand the historical context of Sati customs by examining various empires
and dynasties.
 To comprehend the cultural and religious influences on women that lead them to
sacrifice their lives.
 To examine the present situation of Sati practise and its legality.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What is the significance of Sati and how did it come concerning?

2. Why do women burn themselves to death on their husband's funeral pyre?
3. Are women obliged to make sacrifices or do they do it voluntarily? Is it still practised
by Indigenous People?
4. How did it decrease, and what act or provisions proclaimed it illegal?
5. How does the practise of sati affect our society?

1.5 Research Methodology

In this research report, the doctrinal technique of research was applied to approach the
aforementioned subject. It is a source-based research that draws its content from both classic
and current written text sources such as books, journals, and e-resources. This method is both
analytical and descriptive in nature. The researcher has put a lot of effort to critically

3
investigate all sources in order to present an informative and perceptive analysis. Opinions of
research researchers, academicians, and other specialists who have dealt with this subject
have been incorporated as a genuine contribution to this study.

1.6. Review of literature

Sati practice is being followed from centuries in the name of ritual to stop this inhuman
practice was need of the hour and socialist had taken a lot many measures to eradicate the
practice, various article has been published by scholars, historian and researchers to give us
complete idea of sati pratha and spread awareness to stop the practice, various texts such as,”,
Mahabharata, garud puran mentioned about sati “. The motive of this research paper is to
highlight the reality and present the facts with reference to different secondary sources

1.7 Hypothesis

Sati has started long time back and as time passed this ritual has been wrongly interpreted by
people and ritual turned into an unethical practice. Various kings, dynasty tried to abolish sati
pratha and were successful to some extent, then measures has been taken by social worker
and British government and made it unconstitutional. Today practicing sati is illegal and
number of women following it has reduced drastically but still it’s not completely abolished.

2.1 Meaning, emergence and origin of Sati tradition

Sati (often called "suttee") is a ceremony that entails burning a woman alive with her
husband's dead body; dying alongside her husband's death in the same fire is considered the
wife's responsibility in this ritual. The genesis of Sati is a controversial issue among
researchers because of contradictory facts. Hindus, on the other hand, see it as a sacred rite
since numerous Hindu religious literature have addressed Sati practise and its afterlife
benefits, either openly or implicitly.3

According to some scholars, Sati was the first woman to intentionally burn herself. Sati is
derived from the name of the goddess Sati, who was the first woman to commit suicide by
immolating herself. Because the father of goddess Sati was having issues with his daughter
and the husband of sati deity Shiva, he did not invite them both to an important festival.
When Goddess Sati learned about it, she went to face her father, but he mocked her spouse,

3
Adiga, Malini. "Sati and Suicide in Early Medieval Karnataka." Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 68
(2007): 218-28.

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causing Goddess Sati to become furious and offended with her father. She couldn't take the
humiliation any longer and burnt herself alive in anger. Despite the fact that she was neither a
widow or died alongside her husband, her death became an example of the commencement of
the sati rite. In Hinduism, marriage is an unbreakable tie, and when a wife dies with her
husband, it implies she will join him after death. As a result of the bride's promise, she is
obligated to stay with her husband for seven lives. It was also thought to be necessary since
the Sati ceremony was seen to be a cleansing ritual for their sins and the sins of their family.4

The exact origin of the sati practice is uncertain, but experts believe it came about for two
reasons: The first was to protect women from enemies who invade their territory, such as the
Mughals who attack Rajput lands; When a Rajput military man was killed in action, his
widow is said to have blown herself up on his stake to avoid falling into the hands of the
Mughals. When they are defeated in battle, only the Rajput caste in Rajasthan commit mass
suicide known as Jauhar. For example, at Ajit Singh's funeral in Marwar Jodhpur in 1724,
sixty-six women were burned alive, while eighty-four women were sacrificed after the death
of Budh Singh, king of Bundi.The similarities between Jauhar and Sati are striking, with the
difference that Jauhar is performed by Rajput widows at the end of a failed war, while Sati is
performed by a Hindu woman of religious belief. She gains dignity and power while
honoring her husband's family. As a result of her honorable sacrifice, the widow was able to
escape hatred and gain fame for herself and her family.5

Jorg Fisch provides an alternate theory for Sati's origins in his book Journal of World
History. He claimed that Sati's origins should not be traced too far back in time. He argues it
was a private issue in which lovers or spouses died together or followed each other into
death, regardless of gender. He continues, "As society became aware of this ritual, it sought
to regulate or limit it by merging it into a public ceremony and determining who could and
could not die”.6According to Jorg and Dorothy, this ritual was practised not just in India but
also in other regions of the world, including Greece, Egypt, China, Finland, and some
American Indians. We may learn two things from the conversation. The first is that there is
disagreement among experts concerning the origin of sati. Second, after the goddess Sati,
who was the first person to practise sati.Sati was concerned with females dying with her
husband. Some scholars believe it was a mandatory tradition, while others believe women do

4
Taittariya Samhita- sati adhyay
5
Jarman, “Sati: From Exotic Custom to Relativist Controversy,” 3.
6
Jorg fisch,”dying for death: sati in universal context,” journal world history, 16,no.3(2005):318 ‘’

5
it voluntarily for their husbands. Many people say that sati isn't referenced in Hindu religious
books, and there's no indication of it in these Hindu religious and holy writings.

2.2 Status of Women in Society

Scholars felt that in the past, women had no presence in society apart from the framework of
males, therefore the sati rite made sense to them. Families think that following the death of a
spouse, the women may go astray; in Indian past, women were permitted to be the object of
males. They had little freedom or rights, and religion and society exploited them. She was
seen as a social burden.7 Women were not allowed to remarry after the death of their
husbands, but husbands were allowed to remarry if their wives died. Violence against
women, as well as sexual and gender-based violence, are heinous crimes against women and
girls, according to Sati. They are victims of 'hate crimes' merely because they are female. The
standing of women in modern India has altered drastically. In current Indian culture, she has
the same social, economic, educational, political, and legal status as males. Sati, child
marriage, and the temple prostitution system are no longer as common as they once were.
Women in today's age, although being treated equally with males, do not desire such
privileges. Rights like "Women are equal to Men" can only be found in texts.

2.3 “Historical background” and sati in religious text

The Vedas do not give us a clear picture of sati; instead, they give us some indications about
what women should do once their husbands die. For example, the Rig Veda does not mention
wife burning: "Let these unwidowed dames with excellent husbands adorn themselves with
fragrant balm and unguent." “First, let the dames go up to where he Lieth, decked with fair
gems, tearless, sorrowless.”8 This Shloka (verse) is about the widow, and it states that she
should wear nice perfume and apply creams to her body, that she should not lament or cry,
that she should be happy, and that she should go up to where her husband sleeps. This poem
doesn't mention burning in the fire much, but it does mention a wife visiting her husband's
funeral pyre.

However, “Atharvaveda” a religious text which is also part of Veda, Purana, Daksha Smruti
and Agni puran talks in favour of Sati practice and accept that its moral responsibility of wife
and both goes to heaven and always stay together if women practiced Sati. Another religious
7
‘’Sophie M. Tharakan and Michael Tharakan, “Status of Women in India: A Historical Perspective,” Social
Scientist 4, no. 4/5 (1975): 120’’
8
Rigveda, 10.18:7

6
text, the Garuda Purana, states that if the deceased has hair on his body, his wife will live in
heaven for as many years as the number of hairs on his body: "A Wife who dies in the
company of her husband shall remain in heaven for as many years as there are hairs on his
person." This scripture also states that a woman practising Sati cannot be killed by fire:
"When a woman burns her body with her husband's, the fire burns her limbs only but does
not torment her spirit”.9

Sati practise is also mentioned in the "Mahabharata" literature, where a daughter of the
monarch and Pandu's wife, Madri, did sati following Pandu's death. 10 A separate holy
scripture, "Devi Bhagavatam," also mentions Pandu's death. It states that once Madri, full of
youth and beauty, was living alone in a secluded spot, and Pandu seeing her hugged her and
died as a result of the curse. When the funeral pyre caught fire, the chaste Madri jumped into
it and died as a Sati.11 “One of the texts, "Vishnu Purana," tells the storey of Lord Krishna's
wives who immolated themselves with their husband. Krishna's funeral fire was entered by 8
of Krishna's wives. Rukmini, their leader, embraced Hari's body. Revati, who was also
hugging Rama's body, joined the burning pile, which was cool to her since she was in contact
with her Lord. Hearing about these occurrences, Ugrasena and Anakadundubhi, together with
Devaki and Rohini, decided to join the flames.12

Women have the right, according to "Brihaspati Smriti," to choose whether to do sati and
accompany her spouse or to live a virtuous life. Wife was considered half the body of
husband, thus her choice to survive or practise sati was significant. Despite the fact that there
is actual proof of sati practise in Hindu holy texts, many individuals do not believe in sati and
argue that the passages are misunderstood. Some say that sati was optional and not
mandatory for widows, and many experts believe that sati began to defend women from
invaders.

2.4 “Sati in Medieval India”

Sati was prevalent practise among the top Hindu castes in the 7th century, according to
evidence uncovered. Many occurrences of sati were documented between 1057AD and

9
Garuda Purana, 1.107:29, 10:42
10
Mahabharata, Adi Parva, 1:125
11
Devi Bhagavatam, 6.25:35-50
12
Vishnu Purana, 5:38.

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1070AD. When a king dies in the south, his palace attendants, ministers, and wives follow
him to the afterlife, but sati was not a choice act since once ladies consented, it was hard to
alter their minds. It was most visible during the reigns of the “Kakatiyas, Yadavas,
Hoyasalas, Musunur Nayaks, Padma Nayaks, and the Reddy dynasty”. In the 14th century,
the Vijayanagar Empire was dominated by sati.13

In 1847, the Nizam of Hydrabad prohibited sati, but it was unsuccessful since women
continued to perform sati rituals. The Hindu and Nizam governments agreed to refrain from
interfering with their religious practises. However, Nizam reprinted the Judgement, declaring
that no woman shall die with her husband while practising sati. If relatives or family
members think a widow is planning sati, they must alert a government authority in that
region. Even after this decree was issued, evidence of women practising sati was uncovered.
This is because cops in the region may not take this regulation seriously, and family members
refrain informing about women immolating suicide after death of their husbands.14 Sati was
found in Telangana (present-day Hyderabad) and was particularly prominent in “Indur
Elgandar, Medak Sirpur, Tandur, Tandur, Aurangabad, and the Bid Perbani dynasty”. During
the mediaeval period in south India, Sati was mostly committed by royal families, aristocrats,
and lower caste peasants. It was still practised by the elite class of Hindus in north India, such
as Brahmins.

Sati was practised in nearly every region of Mughal India. According to Ibn Batuta, Terry,
and Pelsaert, it was not mandatory to immolate with one's husband. According to Sidi Ali
Reis, women were not forced to perform sati in Muslim areas. Nonetheless, Akbarnama states
that sati, an ancient Indian ritual of widow immolation, may be involuntary as well. When
Delhi sultans arrived in India, they did not meddle with Indian tradition. However,
Mohammed bin Tughlak was the first Muslim ruler to speak out against sati. He made it
mandatory to get a licence to burn widows, but he took no steps to totally outlaw sati. After
him, Mughal emperor Humayun was the first to take significant steps toward the abolition of
sati; after him, Akbar ended forced sati practise in his realm; and even Jahangir and Shah
Jahan were in favour of sati abolition but were not fully successful in eradicating it. Finally,
Aurangzeb prohibited sati practise in his kingdom, although he was unable to do so

13
Brihaspati smriti, 24:11
14
Nani Gopal Chaudhuri, “The Sati in Hyderabad,” complete analysis , Vol. 16 (1953): 342-243

8
permanently. Many Muslim rulers attempted to save widows via various ways and were
successful in many, if not all, of their endeavours, saving many widows.15

2.5 Sati tradition in Modern India

Sati practise died out in the nineteenth century, when India fell under British authority. Raja
Ram Mohan Roy made the most significant contribution to the elimination of sati in 1811,
when he witnessed his brother's death and seen his brother's wife burn herself on the funeral
pyre. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was appalled by the practise and determined to oppose it; he was
the first Indian to petition for the abolition of sati pratha and worked tirelessly to educate
people about the sati system. Finally, in 1829, Lord William Bentick made Sati illegal by
law.16 According to this regulation, the Sati ritual was made illegal and punished as culpable
murder, bringing Raja Ram Mohan Roy's mission to a close. Huge changes have happened in
Indian culture, and Hinduism is being scrutinised. It might be considered a watershed point in
India's social history. Raja Ram Mohan Roy's contributions in this area have earned him the
moniker "Father of Indian Renaissance."

Despite the government's prohibition of sati, society has a great yearning for it, which causes
friction. Despite this, sati is still widely practised in India. Roop Kanwar, a widow, was
forced into her husband's funeral pyre to practise sati on September 4, 1987. Despite her
protests and attempts to leave, others surrounding her forced her back onto the funeral pyre,
where she died. Roop married a guy from the northern Indian village of Deorala when she
was just 18 years old. The perpetrators of Roop Kanwar's death were apprehended, but Roop
Kanwar became a goddess, and a temple was constructed in her honour.17

In 2008, a 71-year-old widow in Chattisgarh, India, happily practised sati. When her
husband's body was nearly burnt, she dressed herself in a new gown and leapt into the funeral
pyre, according to witnesses. Many people were astonished to find that this behaviour was
still going on in the twenty-first century, despite the fact that it was unlawful and against
Indian law. This case shows how such heinous acts might occur in rural India. This was just
one recorded Sati episode, and there are numerous unreported Sati instances all throughout
India that we are unaware of, even in the twenty-first century. 18 Another incident was the case

15
Chaudhuri, "Sati as Social Institution and the Mughals,” 219-222
16
Fisch, “Dying for the Dead: Sati in Universal Context,” 294
17
Ahmad, “Sati Tradition - Widow Burning in India: A Socio-Legal Examination,” 4
18
Ahmad, “Sati Tradition - Widow Burning In India: A Socio-Legal Examination,” 3

9
of “Kuttu Bai (65) in 2002 in the state of Madhya Pradesh”, “Vidyawati (35) in 2006 in Uttar
Pradesh, Janakrani (40) in 2006 in Madhya Pradesh”.

2.6 “Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)”

Stripping, molestation, kidnapping, rape, abduction, domestic abuse, wife battering, dowry
death and harassment, cruelty to women causing them to commit suicide or female foeticide,
and Sati. These are all examples of violence against women. On December 18, 1979, the
United Nations General Assembly approved the “Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)”. The Convention went into effect in
1981. It consists of a prologue and 30 paragraphs that define what constitutes discrimination
against women and lay out a national action plan to eliminate such discrimination. A few
years ago, India adopted the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Today, sati is classified as a crime under India's
penal code, and those who commit it face a mandatory life sentence.19

2.7 Impact of sati Pratha on Society

It was thought that if a widow performed sati, she would bring honour and prestige to her
family and the inhabitants of the village. The family gains social standing and becomes
sacred. Sati was also a method of increasing corporate profits. By executing religious events,
Brahmin priests obtain wealth, honour, and respect. Many people visit the site of sati practise
since it is regarded a holy spot, resulting in significant profits for immediate family, local
businesses, and transportation firms. Visitors purchase snacks, incense, and coconuts as
offerings, and at the annual fair, they gather money as offerings. The village where sati was
performed was considered a pilgrimage site, so people visit it on an annual basis, benefiting
traders and priests, bringing in more money and increasing labour demand. Due to her
devotion to her spouse, the widow practising sati was deemed a goddess; consequently,
visitors offered donations for goddess worship and temple construction, and after the temple
was finished, people visited the sacred location on a regular basis. Sati is not widespread in
today's society, but it hasn't been fully eradicated; once a year is enough to keep this
philosophy alive. People typically argue that the priest and corpse should be imprisoned for
assisting suicide or doing a sati abolition act. However, the case was dismissed owing to a
lack of evidence, and despite the fact that many people observed the occurrence, no action

19
“ Jörg Fisch, and the Task of the Historian, Journal of World History 18, No. 3 (2007): 361”

10
was taken. When female ministers spoke out against the sati, neither the government nor
society responded. Many politicians and government figures support sati and contribute at the
cite. These terrible practises can be eliminated only if state leaders and the government take
the matter seriously.20

2.8 Indian constitution and prohibition of harmful tradition against women

“ Gender equality is a value contained in the Indian Constitution's Preamble, Fundamental

Rights, Fundamental Duties, and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only guarantees
women's equality, but also authorises the state to implement measures of positive
discrimination in their favour and prohibit all harmful tradition which were followed against
women in the name of ritual. Among other things, Fundamental Rights promote equality
before the law and equal protection under the law; forbids discrimination against any citizen
on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth; and guarantees equal opportunity to
all citizens in employment affairs. Articles 14, 15, 15(3), 16, 39(a), 39(b), 39(c), and 42 of the
Constitution are particularly relevant in this context. 21 ”

 The State is required to make any specific provisions for women and children-
(Article 15 (3)).
 The State should direct its policies toward ensuring equal rights to an adequate means
of subsistence for men and women (Article 39(a)), as well as equal compensation for
equal labour for both men and women (Article 39(d)).
 To foster unity and a feeling of shared brotherhood among all Indians, and to
condemn behaviours that are detrimental to women's dignity (Article 51(A) (e)). Here
it’s included all type of inhuman practice which should be prohibited against women
such as domestic violence, sati pratha, dowry death, harassment and disrespect on the
basis of gender
 Reservation of municipal chairperson positions for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes, and women in such a way as the legislature of a State may prescribe by
legislation (Article 243 T (4))

3.1 Conclusion

20
Jarman, “Sati: From Exotic Custom to Relativist Controversy,” 13.
21
Indian polity- M. Laxshmikant fundamental rights and DPSP (6th ed)

11
Similar incidents of people being burned in fire for the sake of love may be found in various
religions such as Islam and Christianity. It appears that the genesis of sati is quite similar to
that of Abraham, known as Ibrahim, who was recognised as the prophet's messenger who was
thrown into the largest fire mankind had ever experienced and emerged unscathed. The
flaming furnace is a biblical tale. When three young men refuse to submit to a God other than
their own, they are thrown into a fire and burnt alive. Their faith saves them, and they escape
the inferno uninjured. As we can see, this is a narrative that exemplifies the strength of faith,
trust, and love for God.

People dying of love and faith of their own free will are admirable, but in India, women are
either physically tortured by society or medically pressured by religion to join the sati cult.
Despite the fact that Muslim monarchs, the British administration, and, more recently, the
Indian government have all prohibited sati, the practise persists to this day. Many factors
contributed to the fact that sati could not be completely abolished, including religious beliefs,
cultural pressure, holy ceremonies, and a lack of information. Even today, sati is done,
despite the fact that it is prohibited; hence, why do people not resist it? The answer is very
simple first it has been so much blended into Indian society that it has become a normal
practice for them and second they think of it as a religious practice. Nobody thinks it's
strange, and the widow accepts it as a way of life. It is not out of love for her spouse, but out
of the Indian society's instillation in her heart. Instead of prohibiting sati, the government
should aim to create a societal shift in which people despise such acts. More and more
awareness is required in this area if we are to save the lives of innocent ladies in the coming
years.

In most civilised countries or societies, sati is deemed murder, however in big India,
murdering a woman is considered religious activity. Some scholars believe it is a choice act,
while others believe it is mandatory. Personally, I believe that if the conduct is voluntary, it is
suicide, and if it is necessary, it is murder. In India, the day Roop Knwar died was referred to
as a ceremony, but it was clearly a horrible murder. Many times, Indian men have exploited
religion to subjugate women. Now, more than ever, societal awareness is required. People,
regardless of religion, need to know what is wrong and what is right. Obviously, mankind is
at its pinnacle and highest level. To support humanity, one's religion must be patient, tolerant,
and peaceful. Thus, a religion devoid of mercy, love, and compassion is like to sailing on an
empty ship.

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3.2 Reference

1. A Socio-Legal Examination of the Sati Tradition - Widow Burning in India.”

2. Adiga, Malini. "Sati and Suicide in Early Medieval Karnataka." Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress 68 (2007): 218-28.
3. Ahmad, “Sati Tradition - Widow Burning in India: A Socio-Legal Examination,”
4. Brihaspati smriti, 24:11
5. Chaudhuri, "Sati as Social Institution and the Mughals,” 219-222
6. Devi Bhagavatam, 6.25:35-50
7. Fisch, “Dying for the Dead: Sati in Universal Context,” 294
8. Garuda Purana, 1.107:29, 10:42
9. Indian polity- M. Laxshmikant fundamental rights and DPSP (6th ed)
10. Jarman, “Sati: From Exotic Custom to Relativist Controversy,”

11. Jorg fisch,”dying for death: sati in universal context,” journal world history,
16,no.3(2005):318
12. “ Jörg Fisch, and the Task of the Historian, Journal of World History 18, No. 3
(2007): 361”
13. Mahabharata, Adi Parva, 1:125
14. Nani Gopal Chaudhuri, “The Sati in Hyderabad,” complete analysis , Vol. 16 (1953):
342-243
15. Rigveda, 10.18:7
16. “Samskaras or sanskaras are mental impressions, recollections, or psychological
imprints in Indian philosophy and religion”
17. Sophie M. Tharakan and Michael Tharakan, “Status of Women in India: A Historical
Perspective,” Social Scientist 4, no. 4/5 (1975): 120’’
18. “Taittariya Samhita- sati adhyay”
19. Vishnu Purana, 5:38.”

13
14