HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Human Reproductive Organs

Both male and female reproductive organs comprise primary sex organs, secondary or
accessory sex organs, ducts and genitalia.

• Primary Sex Organs:

The primary sex organs are called gonads.
In male, gonads are known as testes. Testes produce male gametes – the sperm or spermatozoa.
The male hormone testosterone is produced from testes.
In female, gonads are represented by the ovaries. Ovaries produce female gametes – the eggs or
ova. The female hormones estrogens and progesterone are produced from different cells of ovaries.

• Secondary or Accessory Sex Organs:

The organs which assist in reproduction but neither produce gametes nor secrete sex hormones,
are called secondary or accessory sex organs.
Accessory sex organs in males include prostate gland, seminal vesicles, epididymes, Cowper’s
glands, vasa efferentia, vasa deferentia, urethra and penis.
Accessory sex organs in females include fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, Bartholin
glands and mammary glands.

• Accessory or Secondary Sexual Characters in Males:

These appear during puberty, at the age of 12-14 years. It is controlled by testosterone. These include :
i. Appearance of beard and moustache
ii. Growth of axillary and pubic hair
iii. Broadening of chest and shoulders
iv. Appearance of hair on chest, arms and legs
v. Development of muscular body
vi. Deepening of voice
vii. Enlargement of genitalia
viii. Seminiferous tubules start producing sperms.

• Accessory or Secondary Sexual Characters in Females:

These appear at the age between 10-12 years. It is controlled by estrogens. These include :
i. Development of delicately curved body
ii. Growth of axillary and pubic hair
iii. Enlargement of breast
iv. Sweetening of voice
v. Initiation of menstrual cycle.

• Male sex hormones and their functions:

Testosterone – It is a steroid hormone secreted by the Leydig cells of testes under the
influence of LH or ICSH. This hormone regulates the formation and maturation of sperms within the
seminiferous tubules.

• Female sex hormones and their functions:

i. FSH – This hormone is secreted from the anterior pituitary. It is essential to pubertal
development and function of women’s ovary. It regulates the growth, development and hormone
secretion of Graafian follicle and also helps in the maturation of ovum.
ii. LH – This hormone is also secreted from the anterior pituitary. It stimulates rupture of
Graafian follicle, release of ovum and the formation of corpus luteum. It also stimulates corpus luteum
to secrete progesterone to sustain the pregnancy.
 iii. Estrogens (estrone, estradiol, estriol) – This hormone is secreted from the follicular cells of
ovary under the influence of the LH and FSH hormone of anterior pituitary. They control the growth
and function of female sex organs (primary & secondary) and also help in the maturation of ovum.
iv. Progesterone – This hormone is secreted from the corpus luteum and in pregnant woman
from the placenta. It regulates the secondary sexual characteristics in female and help her to bear a
baby by modifying her uterus.

❖ Male Reproductive System:

Reproductive organs according to

their position in the body;
1. Seminiferous tubules
2. Rete testes
3. Vasa efferentia
4. Epididymis
5. Vas deferens
6. Seminal vesicle
7. Prostate gland
8. Cowper’s gland
Fig: Male reproductive system in front view. 9. Urethra

• Testes: The male

gonads are known as testes
which produce male gametes –
the sperm or spermatozoa. The
male hormone testosterone is
also produced from testes. A
pair of testes is situated outside
the abdominal cavity within the
scrotum, suspended by
spermatic cords. The
outermost covering of the testis
is formed by a dense fibrous
membrane called tunica
albuginea. Each testis contains
several testicular lobules
within which seminiferous
tubules are found. Testis
originates in the abdominal
cavity, but later during the 7th
month of development,
descends into the scrotum
through the passages called Fig: L.S of human testis.
inguinal canals.

Semen: Semen is a milky viscous mixture of sperm and the secretion from accessory glands. The fluid part of
semen is known as seminal plasma. It has a pH range of 7.3 to 7.5 .
 Composition of semen:
Spermatozoa or sperm – 2.5%
Seminal vesicle fluid – 65-75%
Prostate gland secretion – 25-30%
Bulbourethral gland secretion – less than 1%

• Leydig or interstitial cell and Sertoli cell:

Leydig cells are interstitial cells located adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testes. The
function of Leydig cells is to produce the androgen, testosterone, under the control of pituitary
luteinizing hormone (LH).
A Sertoli cell (sustentacular cells) is a “nurse cell” of the testicles that is part of a seminiferous
tubule and helps in the process of spermatogenesis, the production of sperm. It is activated by follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the pituitary. It provides attachment and nourishment to the
developing sperm.

➢ Differences between Leydig cell & Sertoli cell:

Leydig Cells (Interstitial Cells)
i. Leydig’s cells are present in the connective
tissue between the seminiferous tubules.
ii. They are small groups of pyramidal cells.
iii. These secrete male sex hormones, the
androgens.
Sertoli Cells
i. They are present in-between the cells of
germinal epithelial lining seminiferous
tubules.
ii. Sertoli cells are elongated and found singly.
iii. They provide nourishment to the developing
spermatozoa.

• Urethra: It arises from urinary bladder and joins the ejaculatory duct to form urinogenital
canal. It is a common passage for urine as well as sperm and secretions of accessory glands.

➢ Name different accessory glands of male reproductive system with function.

i. Seminal Vesicles – It contains fructose, calcium and prostaglandins. Fructose acts as a
source of energy for the sperm and prostaglandin stimulate vaginal contractions to help in upward
movement of sperm in the female genital tract to reach the ovum.
Fructose produced by seminal vesicles is not present elsewhere in the body. Therefore, during forensic test for
rape, its presence in females’ genital tract confirms sexual intercourse.

ii. Prostate Gland – The secretion provides nutrition to sperm and increases motility.
iii. Cowper’s Glands or Bulbourethral Glands – The alkaline fluid secreted by this coats
urethra before the release of sperms to neutralize acids of the urine. Mucus secreted by these glands
lubricates the end of the penis and lining of urethra.

Why the testes in male hang outside the abdominal cavity?

The testes in males need relatively 2 to 2.5oC less than the human body temp (37oC) for the formation
and maturation of the sperm. Hence, the testes in male hang outside the abdominal cavity to escape
the high temperature.
If it does not happen, the testes cannot form the sperm which is called cryptorchidism.

❑ Process of Spermatogenesis:
Formation of haploid spermatozoa (n) from diploid spermatogonia (sperm mother cells, 2n) is
called spermatogenesis. It starts during puberty at the age of 13-14 years and continues throughout
life, though it declines in old age.
Spermatogenesis occurs in seminiferous tubules of testes and includes three major events:
i. Formation of spermatids
ii. Formation of spermatozoa or spermiogenesis
iii. Release of mature spermatozoa– spermiation.
 Formation of spermatids is completed in three phases: Multiplication phase, Growth phase
and Maturation phase.

Fig: Steps of Spermatogenesis

➢ Hormonal regulation of sperm formation:

In an adult human male, Pituitary gland secretes LH/ICSH on the stimulation of GnRH from
Hypothalamus. Now, LH/ICSH acts on Leydig’s cells in the testes to secrete testosterone hormone.
On the other hand, pituitary also secretes FSH which acts on Seroli cells in seminiferous tubules
which secretes two hormones ABP (Androgen binding protein) and Inhibin. Now, testosterone enters
the sertoli cells and binds with ABP to start the process of spermatogenesis.
Here, inhibin imposes a negative feedback on the pituitary to reduce the secretion of FSH. On the other
hand, testosterone also imposes a negative feedback on Pituitary and Hypothalamus to reduce their
respective secretion of hormone so that normal spermatogenesis takes place.

Fig: Hormonal regulation of sperm formation.

Define Spermatogenesis, Spermiogenesis and Spermiation:

Spermatogenesis – Formation of haploid spermatozoa from diploid spermatogonia (sperm
mother cells) in the seminiferous tubules of testes is called spermatogenesis.
Spermiogenesis – Transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa within the seminiferous
tubules is called spermiogenesis or spermateleosis.
 Spermiation – The mature spermatozoa or sperm are released from Sertoli cells into the lumen
of seminiferous tubules prior to their passage to epididymis. This is called spermiation.
➢ Development of Spermatozoa within the seminiferous tubules.

❖ Female Reproductive System:

Reproductive organs
according to their position
in the body :

1. Ovary
2. Fallopian tube
3. Uterus
4. Cervix
5. Vagina
6. Vulva
Fig: Diagram of Female Reproductive system.
• Ovary: Female gametes are called ovary. These are almond-shaped organ produce ovum and
several ovarian hormones (oestrogen, progesterone). Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length and is
connected by an ovarian ligament to the uterus. The ovary contains many rounded or oval bodies
called ovarian or Graafian follicles at various stages of development which ultimately give rise to
ovum.
• Oviducts or Fallopian tubes: These are two small tubes of 10-12 cm length, lying on either
sides of uterus near the kidney. They help in passage of egg from ovaries to the uterus. They have
following parts – infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus and uterine part.
 • Uterus: It is a sac-like inverted pear shaped highly vascularised organ where egg (fertilized or
unfertilized) gets implanted after passing through fallopian tubes. Its wall is composed of three layers –
outer perimetrium, middle myometrium and inner endometrium. Endometrium is the glandular
layer of the uterus.

▪ Accessory gland of female reproductive system:

Bartholin’s Glands or Vestibular Glands- These are two bean-shaped glands, one on either
side of vaginal orifice. These secrete lubricating fluid and open into the vestibule. These can be said as
a counterpart of the Cowper’s Gland in the male reproductive system which secretes a clear, viscid
alkaline fluid under sexual excitement.

▪ Process of Oogenesis:

Oogenesis is the
formation of mature female
gamete, called ovum. In
mammals, oogenesis begins in
the ovary of developing female
foetus of about 25 weeks. Thus,
unlike spermatogenesis which
begins at puberty, oogenesis
starts before the birth and is
completed only after the
fertilsiation.
The oogenesis is
completed in three phases:
Multiplication phase, Growth
phase and Maturation phase.

Fig: Steps of Oogenesis.

▪ Hormonal regulation of Oogenesis:

In human female, the pituitary gland under the stimulation of GnRH (Gonadotropin releasing
hormone) by hypothalamus secretes LH (lutenising hormone) and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone).
The LH hormone acts on Corpus Luteum within the ovary to secrete progesterone which later helps in
pregnancy. On the other hand, FSH hormone acts on the thecal cells of the ovary to produce Oestrogen
which later helps in ovum development.
Here, both progesterone and oestrogen imposes a negative feedback on both pituitary and
hypothalamus so that they reduce their respective hormone secretion and a normal pregnancy or ovum
development takes place.
Fig: Hormonal regulation of Oogenesis.

Write about the Meiotic Arrest during the development of Oocyte.

First Arrest (Diplotene Arrest)
The nucleus of primary oocyte enters meiosis but remains in diplotene stage of meiosis-
I till puberty. Attainment of puberty, this arrest is removed by the activity of oestrogen and
progesterone.
Second Arrest (Metaphase-II Arrest)
The secondary oocyte enters 2nd meiotic division and it stops at metaphase – II until
any sperm enters the secondary oocyte during fertilisation. Different hormones and enzymes present in
sperm are only able to remove this arrest.

▪ Before birth at 5 months of foetal life, oogonia reach their maximum number.

▪ Development of Ovum in Ovary:

Fig : Development of ovum in ovary.

➢ Structure of typical Sperm and Ovum.

Fig: Structure of a typical Sperm. Fig: Structure of a typical Ovum.

➢ Differences between Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis

Spermatogenesis
i. It occurs in the seminiferous tubules of testes.
ii. It is completed in testes.
iii. Each spermatogonium produces four
functional spermatozoa.
iv. Spermatozoa are minute, yolkless and motile.
Oogenesis
i. It occurs in the ovary.
ii. It is completed outside the ovary.
iii. Each oogonium produces one functional ovum
and three non-functional polar bodies.
iv. Ova are much larger, often with yolk, rounded
and non-motile.

❖ Menstrual cycle

The reproductive cycle in female primates (apes and humans) is called menstrual cycle. In
human female, this cycle begins at the onset of puberty, each cycle last for an average 28 days during
which an ovum is released from anyone of the two ovaries.
Menarche: On attaining puberty the appearance of the first menstrual flow in the life of a girl
is called menarche. It occurs at the age of 11-13 years.
Menopause: The permanent stoppage of menstrual cycle in a woman is called menopause. It
normally occurs between the age of 45-50 years.
Menstrual cycle actually comprise – (i). ovarian cycle (phases – pre-ovulatory phase,
ovulation, post ovulatory phase) and (ii). uterine cycle (phases – menstruation, proliferative phase,
secretory phase).
Generally the menstrual cycle comprises the following combined phases :
i. Menstrual phase – Appearance of first blood during each sexual cycle indicates this phase which
lasts for 5 days.
ii. Follicular phase – After the completion of the menstrual bleeding, primary follicles start to develop
in the ovaries. Any one of the follicles will mature into Graafian follicle in any one of the ovaries. It
last for next 7-10 days.
iii. Ovulatory phase – Release of ovum from any one of the ovaries occurs at the 14th day of the cycle
under the influence of LH hormone.
iv. Luteal phase – After the release of the mature ovum, the Graafian follicle forms the corpus luteum
which continues to secrete progesterone for the next 12-14 days.
➢ Hormonal Regulation during Menstrual cycle in Female.

Fig : Level of different Hormones during Menstrual cycle.

Fate of unfertilised ovum:

After ovulation, the remaining portions of Graffian follicle stay within the ovary and form
corpus luteum. This structure can produce large quantities of progesterone under the influence of
LH. Progesterone is known as pregnancy hormone which help the implantation of secondary oocyte
within the uterus.
If the oocyte is unfertilised then it may become implanted in the uterine bed under the influence
of progesterone untill corpus luteum remain present within the ovary. As the oocyte is unfertilised it
will not be able to stabilize corpus luteum for long (as it can be done by fertilised ovum by secreting
hCG, human chorionic gonadotrophin) and whenever corpus luteum will start to degenerate, the
oocyte will no longer be able to attach within the uterus. As the level of progesterone start to decrease,
the oocyte get sludged of from the uterus and get expelled from the body through menstrual bleeding.

❖ Fertilisation:
➢ Mention all the changes that occur in the ovum during Fertilisation:
The fusion of sperm with that of ovum is called fertilisation. It results into diploid zygote (2n).
Fertilisation causes oocyte activation – a series of processes that occurs in oocyte during fertilisation.
i. Fast block to polyspermy – Polyspermy is the condition where multiple sperm fuse with the
single egg. A phenomenon which should be prevented. Fast block to polyspermy is an electrical block
to polyspermy due to an influx of Na+ ion occur with the entry of sperm that causes change in resting
egg membrane potential (from -70 mV to +20mV).
ii. Cortical Reaction or Slow block to polyspermy – Entry of sperm within the oocyte
increase the Ca++ ion concentration. This increased Ca++ ion help in release of cortical granule contents
which hardens vitelline membrane and may give impermeability to sperm.
iii. Reactivation of meiosis – The meiotic cycle of the oocyte remain suspended in metaphase–
II of meiosis–II. Entry of sperm into oocyte’s cytoplasm reactivates the meiotic cycle and finally result
in the generation of single mature ovum along with 3 polar bodies.
iv. Fusion and syngamy – Female and male pro-nucleus move towards the centre and combine
with each other which is called syngamy. After that chromosomes become oriented on the metaphase
spindle for mitosis of the zygote.

❖ Fertilisation in human is a physiochemical process – Explain.

The mode of the fertilisation in human is internal i.e; sperm is delivered within the female
genital tract. Only the mature sperm can move towards the oviduct by the action of two hormones–
oxytocin and prostaglandin. Fertilisation between sperm and ovum occur near ampulla-isthmus
junction within the oviduct. After contact between sperm and ovum, sperm releases it’s acrosomal
contents and digest zona pellucida layer of ovum and make entry within the ovum. After fusion of
sperm and ovum, zona pellucida become hardened to prevent further entry of any other sperms
(cortical granule reaction).
At the end, both the nucleus of sperm and ovum mixes with each other by syngamy or
karyogamy or amphimixis and form a diploid zygote (2n).
Steps of Fertilisation: i. Ejaculation of sperm.
ii. Capacitation of sperm.
iii. Movement of sperm towards ovum.
iv. Fertilizin-antifertilizin recognition.
v. Acrosomal reaction.
vi. Prevention of Polyspermy.
vii. Corticle granule reaction.
viii. Syngamy.
➢ What is Acrosomal reaction?
Acrosome is a cap-like structure over the anterior half of the sperm’s head. Acrosome
reaction is the reaction that occurs in the acrosome of the sperm as it approaches the egg. On coming
in contact with the surface of the ovum, acrosome releases following hydrolytic enzymes, commonly
known as sperm lysins:
i. Hyaluronidase dissolves the cementing substances between corona radiata cells, resulting in
their seperation.
ii. Corona penetrating enzymes cause degeneration of corona cells obstructing the sperm
path.
iii. Zona lysin or acrosin digests zona pellucida layer and enables sperm to reach plasma
membrane of the ovum and enter it’s cytoplasm.
The changes introduced by sperm lysins in the egg surface may also be described as acrosomal
reaction. It is influenced by Ca++,Mg++ ion concentration, optimum pH and temparature.

➢ What is capacitation?
Activation of sperm for fertilising the egg is called capacitation. It takes place in the female
genital tract where the secretion of female genital tract activates sperm by introducing the following
changes:
a. Dilution of inhibitory factors of semen (produced by prostate gland) by the secretion of
female genital tract.
b. Removal of cholesterol vesicles from the covering of sperm head and acrosome.
c. Increase in the permeability of acrosome covering for the Ca++ facilitating the entry of Ca++
into the sperm.

➢ What is ectopic pregnancy?

Ectopic pregnancy or tubal pregnancy is a complication of pregnancy in which the embryo
attaches outside the uterus. Signs and symtoms classically include abdominl pain and vaginal bleeding.
Most ectopic pregnancies (90%) occurs in the fallopian tube which are known as tubal pregnancies.
Implantation can also occur in the cervix, ovaries or within the abdomen. Detection of ectopic
pregnancy is done typically by blood tests for HCG and ultrasound.

➢ Significance of fertilisation.
i. This process stimulates the secondary oocyte to complete its maturation to
form haploid ovum (n).
ii. Restores the diploid number of chromosomes (2n=46 in human) in the zygote.
iii. The zygote develops to form a new individual which is necessary for the
continuation of the species.
iv. Activates the egg to develop into a new individual by repeated mitotic
divisions.
v. Combines characters of two parents introducing variations.
• How the sex of a human baby is determined?
Sex of the baby is
determined at the time of
fertilisation. As a matter of fact,
women do not have any role in
determining the sex of child. They
are homogametic and produce
only one type of ovum (22A+X).
Men are heterogametic and
produce two types of sperm –
(22A+X) and (22A+Y) in equal
proportion. The zygote, therefore
carries either (44AA+XX) or
(44AA+XY) chromosomes.
The zygote carrying (44AA+XX) would be a female baby and (44AA+XY) would be a male
baby. Therefore, the sex of the baby is determined by father’s sperm and not by mother’s egg.

▪ Mention the series of changes takes place in zygote before implantation.

i. Cleavage in human
zygote: About 24 hrs after
fertilisation, zygote divides
into 2 blastomeres which is
still in the upper portion of
fallopian tube. This is the
1st cleavage division.
ii. Formation of Morula:
The next cleavage takes
place within 40 hrs after
fertilisation. Subsequent
cleavage divisions follow
one after another in an
orderly manner. Embryo
now becomes a solid mass
of cells called morula (8-16
cells). During this period
embryo slowly moves down
the fallopian tube towards
Fig: Events from Ovulation to Implantation.
uterus.
iii. Formation of Blastocyst: When morula enters uterine cavity, the glands of uterine
wall secrete a glycogen rich fluid in the uterine cavity called uterine milk. With the appearance of
blastocoel (cavity of blastocyst), morula changes into a hollow blastocyst by 5th day after fertilisation.
The change from morula to blastocyst is called blastulation.
iv. Implantation: The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called
trophoblast and the inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.
Trophoblast forms chorionic villi, which later become part of the placenta. After formation of
trophoblast the blastocyst get attached to endometrium of uterine wall. It occurs around the 9th day of
fertilisation.
Zygote Morula Blastula Blastocyst Implantation

▪ Define cleavage with characteristics.

The series of cell division by which a single fertilised egg cell is transformed into a
multicellular body (morula) is called cleavage. In human, the cleavage is of holoblastic type
(blastomeres divide completely).
 • Characteristics of cleavage:
i. The daughter cells produced mitotically are genetically similar to the parent
cell.
ii. During cleavage, growth doesnot occur because the G-phase remains absent
and the interphase is very short. Cell-cycle only comprise of M-phase and S-
phase. The resultant new cells become progressively small in size.
iii. The ratio of nuclear material to cytoplasm increases due to rapid DNA
synthesis.
iv. During cleavage there is no cytoplasmic synthesis.

▪ Name different foetal membranes with their respective functions.

Chorion – It protects embryo and foetus from immune
responses of mother by –
i. Secreting proteins that block antibody production
by mother.
ii. Promoting the production of T-lymphocytes that
suppress the normal immune response in the uterus.
Amnion – i. Serves as a shock absorber for the foetus.
ii. Regulates foetal body temperature.
Allantois – i. It acts as urinary bladder for the storage of
waste excretory products in the developing embryo.
ii. It acts as a mean to provide oxygen and food to
embryo.
iii. Later it forms hind-gut after the growth of embryo.
Yolk sac – i. It transfers nutrients to the embryo during
the 2nd and 3rd weeks.
ii. Later in a developed embryo it forms part of gut. Fig: Extraembryonic membrane in Human.

▪ Placenta:
The intimate connection between chorionic villi of embryo and uterine wall of mother is called
placenta. It is the structural and functional unit between embryo (foetus) and mother. The human
placenta is metadiscoidal because of its shape; haemochorial because of direct contact of the chorion
with the maternal blood and deciduate because some maternal tissue is shed at parturition.
Functions: i. Placenta transport nutrients from maternal blood stream into the foetus.
ii. Placenta brings oxygen to the foetus from mother’s blood for respiration and removes
CO2 from foetal blood into mother’s blood.
iii. Excretory wastes from foetal blood diffuses into maternal blood through placenta.
iv. Antibodies developed in the blood of mother against certain diseases like diphtheria,
measles, smallpox, scarlet fever etc. are passed from mother into the foetus.
v. Placenta secrete several hormones which play important roles during pregnancy.
a. HCG: It maintains the corpus luteum and stimulates the secretion of progesterone.
b. Human placental lactogen (hPL): Stimulates growth and development of
mammary gland in a pregnant woman.
c. Progesterone and Oestrogen: They help in maintaining pregnancy, enhance
endometrial growth, enlarge the entire uterus, mammary glands and also relaxes
pelvic ligaments during childbirth.
d. Chorionic thyrotrophin: Stimulates mother’s thyroid gland to secrete thyroxin.
e. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH): It is thought to be the “clock” that
establishes the timing of birth.
vi. Placenta serves as an efficient barrier and allows only those materials to pass into the foetal
blood that are necessary.
 ➢ What is Colostrum?
After giving the birth, the breasts of mother first release colostrum and not milk. Colostrum is a
yellowish liquid rich in protein “globulin” but low in fat. It contains antibodies from the mother which
provide passive immunity to the newborn from infections.

➢ What is zona hatching?

Zona hatching is a phenomenon occurring during prenatal development. Prior to this event, the
predecessor of the embryo, in the form of a blastocyst, is surrounded by a glycoprotein sphere called
the zona pellucida. To be able to perform implantation in the uterine wall, the blastocyst first needs to
get rid of the zona pellucida. This lysis of the zona pellucida is called zona hatching. This happens at
the end of day four after fertilisation.

• Gastrulation:
Gastrulation is a phase in the embryonic development of human, during which the single-
layered blastula is transformed into a multilayered structure known as the gastrula. Before
gastrulation, the embryo is a continuous epithelial sheet of cells; by the end of gastrulation, the embryo
has begun differentiation to establish distinct cell lineages.
In all triploblastic animals, gastrulation forms three germ layers – ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm. These germ layers are formed by characteristic movements of some of the cells, known as
morphogenetic movements.
Gastrulation takes place after cleavage and the formation of the blastula. Gastrulation is
followed by organogenesis.

Parturition: The process of delivery of the foetus is called parturition. It occurs normally after the
completion of gestation period (9 months in human).

➢ What is Foetal ejection reflex?

The signals for child birth originate from the fully matured foetus and placenta which induce
mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex.

➢ What is Gubernaculum?
It is an embryonic structure present in both male and female human known to perform the
function of decendence of gonad (testes and ovary) in their correct position. This structure is
prominently present during the early formation of urinary and reproductive system in human and later
it get degenerated.

➢ What is Amnionitis?
It is inflammation of amnion, usually resulting from premature rupture of the amnion and often
associated with neonatal infection.

➢ What is Teratogeny?
Production of malformed infant due to certain teratogens is called teratogeny. Teratogens are
certain agents or drugs that cause abnormal development in foetus. E.g.- thalidomide, which causes
mutiple defects in growing foetus.

➢ What is Pregnancy sickness?

Some women suffer from pregnancy sickness, popularly called morning sickness, which is
characterised by nausea and vomiting during the first 3 month of pregnancy. The exact cause is
unknown, but high concentration of estrogen and other substances may be responsible.

• Name the hormone responsible for the followings –

i. Pregnancy – Progesterone.
ii. Childbirth – Oxytocin.
iii. Production of milk – Progesterone & Estrogen.
iv. Secretion of milk – Prolactin.
 IMPORTANT NOTES

• Human beings are unisexual or dioecious (sexes are separate) animals.

• Karyogamy - The fusion of gametic nuclei during fertilization is called karyogamy.
• Amphimixis - Mixing of two sets of chromosomes of two gametes during fertilization is
called amphimixis.
• Organogenesis - Formation of different organ systems from three primary germ layers of
gastrula during the gestation period. It involves morphogenesis and differentiation.
• Sertoli cells secretes Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) in males which suppresses
development of female duct system.
• Hydrocoel – Tissue fluid present in the scrotal sac.
• Gubernaculum – Testis is held in position in scrotum by a small, thick, white fibrous
gubernaculum.
• Inguinal hernia – It occurs due to descending of an intestinal loop into the scrotum through
inguinal cavity.
• Prostatitis – Enlargement of prostate gland which leads to difficulty in urination.
• Gametogonia – Spermatogonia and oogonia collectively termed as gametogomia.
• In male human, spermatogenesis is a continuous process and is completed in about 74 days.
Two testes form about 120 million sperm each day.
• Nebenkern – Mitochondria form a spiral ring behind the neck region of the sperm, called
nebenkern.
• Depending on the type of X or Y chromosome sperms are of two types – Gynosperms (sperm
with x chromosome) and Androsperms (sperm with Y-chromosome).
• Follicular atresia - It is the normal breakdown of the ovarian follicles, which consist of an
oocyte. It occurs continually throughout a woman’s life.
• Hysterectomy – Surgical removal of uterus from any female human.
• Gynaecomastia – Enlargement of breasts in male human.
• Labia majora of female are homologous to scrotal sacs of male human.
• Clitoris of female is homologous to penis of male.
• Menstruation is also known as “Funeral of unfertilized egg”.
• Level of estrogen is maximum on 12th day while the level of LH is maximum on 13th day of
menstrual cycle. The level of progesterone is maximum on 21st day of the menstrual cycle.
• Painful menstruation is called dysmenorrhea. Presence of high level of prostaglandin or
presence of fibroid, endometrosis, adenoma etc in the uterus leads to dysmenorrhea.
• Ejaculated seminal fluid (≅ 3.5 ml) contains almost 200 – 300 million sperms out of which
only 100 sperms finally reach the fallopian tube.
• The sperms swim in the seminal fluid by the lashing movement of their tail at the rate of 1- 4
mm per minute.
• The ovum secretes a chemical called fertilizin which helps sperms to bind with ovum by their
antifertilizin sites. This fertilizin-antifertilizin reaction is highly species specific. The main
aim of this reaction is to thin out the number of sperms to reduce the chances of polyspermy.
• Sperm is generally comes in contact with ovum in the animal pole (where the polar bodies are
found) and the opposite pole is known as vegetal pole .