Ecocriticism

Ecocriticism is the study of literature and the environment from an interdisciplinary point of view, where
literature scholars analyze texts that illustrate environmental concerns and examine the various ways
literature treats the subject of nature.[1] It was first originated by Joseph Meeker as an idea called “literary
ecology” in his The Comedy of Survival: Studies in Literary Ecology (1972).[2] The term 'ecocriticism' was
coined in 1978 by William Rueckert in his essay "Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in
Ecocriticism".[3][4]

It takes an interdisciplinary point of view by analyzing the works of authors, researchers and poets in the
context of environmental issues and nature.[5] Some ecocritics brainstorm possible solutions for the
correction of the contemporary environmental situation, though not all ecocritics agree on the purpose,
methodology, or scope of ecocriticism.

In the United States, ecocriticism is often associated with the Association for the Study of Literature and
Environment (ASLE),[6] which hosts a biennial conference for scholars who deal with environmental
matters in literature and the environmental humanities in general. ASLE publishes a journal—
Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment (ISLE)—in which current international scholarship
can be found.

Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach that is known by a number of other designations, including
"green (cultural) studies", "ecopoetics", and "environmental literary criticism", and is often informed by
other fields such as ecology, sustainable design, biopolitics, environmental history, environmentalism, and
social ecology, among others

Contents
Definition
In literary studies
See also
References
Sources
External links

Definition
In comparison with other 'political' forms of criticism, there has been relatively little dispute about the moral
and philosophical aims of ecocriticism, although its scope has broadened from nature writing, romantic
poetry, and canonical literature to take in film, television, theatre, animal stories, architectures, scientific
narratives and an extraordinary range of literary texts. At the same time, ecocriticism has borrowed
methodologies and theoretically informed approaches liberally from other fields of literary, social and
scientific study.
Cheryll Glotfelty's working definition in The Ecocriticism Reader is that "ecocriticism is the study of the
relationship between literature and the physical environment",[6] and one of the implicit goals of the
approach is to recoup professional dignity for what Glotfelty calls the "undervalued genre of nature
writing".[7] Lawrence Buell defines "'ecocriticism' ... as [a] study of the relationship between literature and
the environment conducted in a spirit of commitment to environmentalist praxis".[8]

Simon Estok noted in 2001 that "ecocriticism has distinguished itself, debates notwithstanding, firstly by
the ethical stand it takes, its commitment to the natural world as an important thing rather than simply as an
object of thematic study, and, secondly, by its commitment to making connections".[9]

More recently, in an article that extends ecocriticism to Shakespearean studies, Estok argues that
ecocriticism is more than "simply the study of Nature or natural things in literature; rather, it is any theory
that is committed to effecting change by analyzing the function–thematic, artistic, social, historical,
ideological, theoretical, or otherwise–of the natural environment, or aspects of it, represented in documents
(literary or other) that contribute to material practices in material worlds".[10] This echoes the functional
approach of the cultural ecology branch of ecocriticism, which analyzes the analogies between ecosystems
and imaginative texts and posits that such texts potentially have an ecological (regenerative, revitalizing)
function in the cultural system.[11]

As Michael P. Cohen has observed, "if you want to be an ecocritic, be prepared to explain what you do and
be criticized, if not satirized." Certainly, Cohen adds his voice to such critique, noting that one of the
problems of ecocriticism has been what he calls its "praise-song school" of criticism. All ecocritics share an
environmentalist motivation of some sort, but whereas the majority are 'nature endorsing',[12] some are
'nature sceptical'. In part this entails a shared sense of the ways in which 'nature' has been used to legitimize
gender, sexual and racial norms (so homosexuality has been seen as 'unnatural', for example), but it also
involves scepticism about the uses to which 'ecological' language is put in ecocriticism; it can also involve a
critique of the ways cultural norms of nature and the environment contribute to environmental degradation.
Greg Garrard has dubbed 'pastoral ecology' the notion that nature undisturbed is balanced and
harmonious,[13] while Dana Phillips has criticised the literary quality and scientific accuracy of nature
writing in The Truth of Ecology. Similarly, there has been a call to recognize the place of the environmental
justice movement in redefining ecocritical discourse.[14]

In response to the question of what ecocriticism is or should be, Camilo Gomides has offered an operational
definition that is both broad and discriminating: "The field of enquiry that analyzes and promotes works of
art which raise moral questions about human interactions with nature, while also motivating audiences to
live within a limit that will be binding over generations".[15] He tests it for a film adaptation about
Amazonian deforestation. Implementing the Gomides definition, Joseph Henry Vogel makes the case that
ecocriticism constitutes an "economic school of thought" as it engages audiences to debate issues of
resource allocation that have no technical solution. Ashton Nichols has recently argued that the historical
dangers of a romantic version of nature now need to be replaced by "urbanatural roosting", a view that sees
urban life and the natural world as closely linked and argues for humans to live more lightly on the planet,
the way virtually all other species do.[16]

In literary studies
Ecocritics investigate such things as the underlying ecological values, what, precisely, is meant by the word
nature, and whether the examination of "place" should be a distinctive category, much like class, gender or
race. Ecocritics examine human perception of wilderness, and how it has changed throughout history and
whether or not current environmental issues are accurately represented or even mentioned in popular
culture and modern literature. Not only do ecocritics determine the actual meaning of nature writing texts,
but they use those texts for analyzing the practices of society in relationship to nature. They also critique
visions that are human-centered and man/male centered. Scholars in ecocriticism engage in questions
regarding anthropocentrism, and the "mainstream assumption that the natural world be seen primarily as a
resource for human beings" as well as critical approaches to changing ideas in "the material and cultural
bases of modern society."[17] Recently, "empirical ecocritics (http://www.empiricalecocriticism.com)" have
begun empirically evaluating the influence of ecofiction on its readers.[18] Other disciplines, such as history,
economics, philosophy, ethics, and psychology, are also considered by ecocritics to be possible contributors
to ecocriticism.

While William Rueckert may have been the first person to use the term ecocriticism (Barry 240) in his 1978
essay entitled Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism, ecocriticism as a movement owes
much to Rachel Carson's 1962 environmental exposé Silent Spring. Drawing from this critical moment,
Rueckert's intent was to focus on "the application of ecology and ecological concepts to the study of
literature".[19]

Ecologically minded individuals and scholars have been publishing progressive works of ecotheory and
criticism since the explosion of environmentalism in the late 1960s and 1970s. However, because there was
no organized movement to study the ecological/environmental side of literature, these important works
were scattered and categorized under a litany of different subject headings: pastoralism, human ecology,
regionalism, American Studies etc. British marxist critic Raymond Williams, for example, wrote a seminal
critique of pastoral literature in 1973, The Country and the City.

Another early ecocritical text, Joseph Meeker's The Comedy of Survival (1974), proposed a version of an
argument that was later to dominate ecocriticism and environmental philosophy; that environmental crisis is
caused primarily by a cultural tradition in the West of separation of culture from nature, and elevation of the
former to moral predominance. Such anthropocentrism is identified in the tragic conception of a hero whose
moral struggles are more important than mere biological survival, whereas the science of animal ethology,
Meeker asserts, shows that a "comic mode" of muddling through and "making love not war" has superior
ecological value. In the later, "second wave" ecocriticism, Meeker's adoption of an ecophilosophical
position with apparent scientific sanction as a measure of literary value tended to prevail over Williams's
ideological and historical critique of the shifts in a literary genre's representation of nature.

As Glotfelty noted in The Ecocriticism Reader, "One indication of the disunity of the early efforts is that
these critics rarely cited one another's work; they didn't know that it existed...Each was a single voice
howling in the wilderness."[20] Nevertheless, ecocriticism—unlike feminist and Marxist criticisms—failed
to crystallize into a coherent movement in the late 1970s, and indeed only did so in the US in the 1990s.

In the mid-1980s, scholars began to work collectively to establish ecocriticism as a genre, primarily through
the work of the Western Literature Association in which the revaluation of nature writing as a non-fictional
literary genre could function. During the late-1980s poet Jack Collom was awarded a 2nd National
Endowment for the Arts grant, for his ground-breaking work in this emerging genre. Collom taught an
influential Eco-Lit course at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado, for nearly two decades. In 1990, at
the University of Nevada, Reno, Glotfelty became the first person to hold an academic position as a
professor of Literature and the Environment, and UNR, with the aid of the now-retired Glotfelty and the
remaining professor Michael P. Branch, has retained the position it established at that time as the intellectual
home of ecocriticism even as ASLE has burgeoned into an organization with thousands of members in the
US alone. From the late 1990s, new branches of ASLE and affiliated organizations were started in the UK,
Japan, Korea, Australia and New Zealand (ASLEC-ANZ), India (OSLE-India), Southeast Asia (ASLE-
ASEAN), Taiwan, Canada and Europe. The emergence of ecocriticism in British literary criticism is
usually dated to the publication in 1991 of Romantic Ecology: Wordsworth and the Environmental
Tradition by Jonathan Bate.

Ecocriticism’s second wave emerged in the 2000s through a more complex understanding of the overall
history of global environmentalism and environmental justice. According to Lawrence Buell, former
Harvard professor and proponent of ecocriticism, the second wave of ecocriticism aligns with public health
environmentalism, with ethics and politics that are sociocentric rather than ecocentric. The second wave not
only considers rural landscapes or wilderness, but also landscapes of urban and industrial transformation. It
is inspired by writers such as Charles Dickens, who wrote about Victorian-era public health concerns, and
the American novelist Upton Sinclair, as well as by global activists, such as Ken Saro-Wiwa, who was
executed for his protests against ecological devastation in Nigeria, and Michiko Ishimure, who wrote about
Minamata disease and the effects of mercury poisoning. The second wave of ecocriticism distinguishes
itself from the first wave by prioritizing the exploration of issues such as environmental resource
distribution, environmental justice, minority and socioeconomic impacts related to environmental
circumstances. A representative of second-wave ecocriticism is the 2002 Environmental Justice Reader:
Politics, Poetics, and Pedagogy.[21]

See also
Animal studies
Critical theory
Cultural ecology
Ecolinguistics
Ecosophy
Ethnobiology
Environmental humanities

References
1. "What is ecocriticism? – Environmental Humanities Center" (http://ehc.english.ucsb.edu/?pa
ge_id=2388). Retrieved 26 February 2020.
2. The Comedy of Survival: Studies in Literary Ecology. New York. 1972.
ISBN 9780816516865.
3. "Ecocriticism" (https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780190221911/o
bo-9780190221911-0014.xml). obo. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
4. The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Athens, Georgia: University of
Georgia Press. 1996. pp. xxviii. ISBN 9-780-8203-1781-6.
5. "What is Ecocriticism?: Literary Movements" (https://www.aresearchguide.com/ecocriticism.h
tml). A Research Guide for Students. 27 August 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
6. Glotfelty & Fromm 1996, p. xviii
7. Glotfelty & Fromm 1996, p. xxxi
8. 430, n.20
9. Estok 2001, p. 220
10. Estok 2005, pp. 16-17
11. Zapf 2008
12. Kate Soper, "What is Nature?", 1998
13. Barry 2009, pp. 56-58
14. Buell 1998
15. Gomides, C. (1 January 2006). "Putting a New Definition of Ecocriticism to the Test: The
Case of The Burning Season, a Film (Mal)Adaptation". Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature
and Environment. 13 (1): 13–23. doi:10.1093/isle/13.1.13 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fisle%2
F13.1.13). ISSN 1076-0962 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-0962).
16. Macmillan. "Macmillan" (http://us.macmillan.com/beyondromanticecocriticism-1/AshtonNich
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17. Clark, Timothy (2011). The Cambridge Introduction to Literature and the Environment. New
York: Cambridge UP. p. 2. ISBN 9780521720908.
18. Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew; Weik von Mossner, Alexa; Małecki, W. P. (1 May 2020).
"Empirical Ecocriticism: Environmental Texts and Empirical Methods" (https://academic.oup.
com/isle/article/27/2/327/5849158). Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment.
27 (2): 327–336. doi:10.1093/isle/isaa022 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fisle%2Fisaa022).
ISSN 1076-0962 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-0962).
19. Glotfelty & Fromm 1996, p. 107
20. Glotfelty & Fromm 1996, p. vii
21. Buell, Lawrence (2011). "Ecocriticism: Some Emerging Trends" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/
10.5250/quiparle.19.2.0087). Qui Parle. 19 (2): 87–115. doi:10.5250/quiparle.19.2.0087 (http
s://doi.org/10.5250%2Fquiparle.19.2.0087). ISSN 1041-8385 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/
1041-8385). JSTOR 10.5250/quiparle.19.2.0087 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5250/quipar
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 Green Letters: Studies in Ecocriticism (http://asle.org.uk/green-letters/)
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s://www.easlce.eu/)
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