SCIENCE

CLASS-10
 CHAPTER 1
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Syllabus for 2020-21 : Chemical equation, Balanced chemical equation, implications of

a balanced chemical equation, types of chemical reactions: combination,
decomposition, displacement, double displacement, precipitation, neutralization,
oxidation and reduction.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS : (3)

1. COMBINATION REACTION
A reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product is called a combination
reaction.
E.g. C + O2 → CO2

2. DECOMPOSITION REACTION
A reaction in which a compound splits into two or more simple substances is called a decomposition
reaction.
a) Thermal decomposition : When decomposition is carried out by heating.
E.g. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
b) Electrolytic decomposition : When decomposition is carried out by passing electricity.
E.g. 2H2O → 2H2 + O2
c) Photolytic decomposition : When decomposition is carried out in presence of sunlight.
E.g. 2AgCl → 2Ag +Cl2
White coloured silver chloride turns grey on exposure to sunlight.
This reaction is used in black and white photography.

3. DISPLACEMENT REACTION
The chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its salt
solution is called displacement reaction.

E.g. Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu

The blue colour of copper sulphate changes to pale green colour due to the formation of ferrous sulphate
and brown coloured deposition of copper is observed.
4. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION
A reaction in which new compounds are formed by mutual exchange of ions between the reactants is called
double displacement reaction.
E.g. Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
White precipitate of barium sulphate is formed, so it is also called a precipitation reaction.

5. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION/REDOX REACTION (2)

Oxidation : Addition of oxygen to reactant / Removal of hydrogen from a reactant.
C + O2 → CO2
Reduction : Addition of hydrogen to reactant/ Removal of oxygen from reactant.
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
In this reaction, substance oxidized is H2 and substance reduced is CuO.
CuO is oxidizing agent and H2 is reducing agent.
Since oxidation and reduction are taking place together, it is a redox reaction.

QUESTIONS

1. Give reason why

a) Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.
b) We store silver chloride in dark coloured bottles in labs. (2)

2. A small amount of Ferrous sulphate is heated in hard glass tube.

a) Write the balanced chemical reaction involved.
b) Name the type of reaction taking place. (2)

3. (a) Identify (i) the reducing and oxidizing agents (ii) substance getting oxidized and reduced in the
given chemical reaction : CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
(b) Give an example of a double displacement reaction. (3)
 CHAPTER 2
ACIDS BASES AND SALTS
Syllabus for 2020-21 : Acids, bases and salts: Their definitions in terms of furnishing of H +
and OH– ions, General properties, examples and uses, concept of pH scale (Definition
relating to logarithm not required), importance of pH in everyday life; preparation and uses
of Sodium Hydroxide, Bleaching powder, Baking soda, Washing soda and Plaster of Paris.
ACIDS AND BASES (2)
ACIDS BASES

• Sour in taste • Bitter in taste, have soapy touch

• Turn blue litmus red
• Release hydrogen (hydronium) ions
[H+(aq) or H3O+] in water/ aqueous
solutions
• Conduct electricity in aqueous
solution
• Turn red litmus blue
• Release hydroxide ions (OH–) in
water/ aqueous solutions
• Conduct electricity in aqueous
solution

Examples:
Examples:
• Sulphuric acid - H2SO4
• Hydrochloric acid - HCl • Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) –
• Acetic Acid - CH3COOH NaOH
• Nitric Acid - HNO3 • Calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2
• Potassium hydroxide (caustic
potash)– (KOH)
Alkalis are bases soluble in water.

Some naturally occurring acids:

Substance Acid Present

Vinegar Acetic acid
Curd Lactic acid
Tamarind Tartaric acid
Spinach Oxalic acid
 PREPARATION OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH): (1)

NaOH is obtained by the electrolytic decomposition of solution of sodium chloride. This whole process is
known as Chlor-Alkali process. Cl2 and H2 are other by-products of this process.

2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) [Anode] + H2 (g) [Cathode]

ACID-BASE INDICATORS : (2)

Indicators are substances or chemicals that help us to identify whether the given solutions are acids or
bases.

pH SCALE : (2)

• Range = 0 to 14
• Neutral substance has the pH of exactly 7
• Acidic substance has the pH less than 7
• Basic substance has the pH more than 7
 Importance of pH In Everyday Life :

1. pH in our digestive system: When our stomach produces excess acid, it causes indigestion. In order
to cure indigestion we take a mild base like baking soda [NaHCO3] or milk of magnesia [Mg(OH)2].
These are known as ‘Antacids‘. They neutralize the excess acid and give relief.

2. pH change as the cause of tooth decay: Tooth decay starts when the pH of mouth falls below 5.5.
The best way to prevent tooth decay is to clean the mouth after eating and using a basic toothpaste
which can neutralize acid inside mouth.

3. Self Defense by animals and plants through chemical warfare: Ant sting or nettle sting injects
methanoic acid into a person’s body. Its sting causes pain and irritation. Baking soda is used as a
remedy because being a base it neutralizes the injected acid.

4. pH in soil: If the soil is too acidic then it is treated with materials like quicklime (CaO) or slaked
lime. If the soil is too alkaline then alkalinity can be reduced by adding decaying organic
matter.

SALTS (3)

Salts are the ionic compounds which are produced after the neutralization reaction
between acids and bases.

BAKING SODA
Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate Formula – NaHCO3

Preparation– Uses:
a. By heating Limestone : CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 1. In Textile industry
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium 2. In Paper industry
chloride and ammonia: 3. As Disinfectant
NaCl(aq)+NH3(g)+CO2(g)+H2O(l)→NaHCO3(aq)+NH4Cl(aq)
 Baking Powder
❖ Baking Powder is a mixture of baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) and a mild
edible acid such as tartaric acid.

WASHING SODA
Chemical name – Sodium Carbonate Formula – Na2CO3.10 H2O

Preparation– Uses:
1. In Glass, Soap and Paper
industries
2. For softening of water
3. As Domestic cleaner

Na2CO3 + 10 H2O → Na2CO3.10 H2O

BLEACHING POWDER
Chemical name – Calcium Oxychloride Formula – CaOCl2

Preparation–
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Cl2(g)→ CaOCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
On interaction with water – bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for
bleaching action.

PLASTER OF PARIS (POP)

Chemical name – Calcium Sulphate Hemi Hydrate Formula – CaSO4. ½ H2O

Preparation–
Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O (s) on heating at 100°C (373K) gives CaSO4. ½ H2O and 3/2 H2O
CaSO4. ½ H2O is Plaster of Paris.
 Water of crystallization

Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of
a salt.
Examples: CuSO4. 5H2O
CaSO4 .2H2O
Na2 CO3 .10H2O
FeSO4.7H2O

QUESTIONS

1. What is the colour of Methyl Orange in a basic medium? (1)

2. Mention the two constituents of Baking Powder? Give its uses (any two). (2)
3. What is the chemical name of POP? What happens when water is added to it? Write the balanced
chemical reaction for it. (2)
4. Define water of crystallization. Give examples of two salts that have water of crystallization and also
write their chemical formulae. (2)
 CHAPTER 3
METALS AND NON-METALS
Syllabus for 2020-21 : Properties of metals and non-metals; Reactivity series;
Formation and properties of ionic compounds
Deletion for 2020-21 : Basic metallurgical processes; Corrosion and its prevention

EXCEPTIONS IN METALS AND NON-METALS :

(2)
Metal which is liquid Metals which are soft and can be cut Metals with very low melting
at room temperature with a knife; have low densities and low points that may melt on our palm
MERCURY melting points GALLIUM AND CAESIUM
LITHIUM, SODIUM, POTASSIUM

Non-metal which is Non-metal which is a good conductor Non-metal which has a very high
lustrous of electricity melting and boiling point
GRAPHITE (ALLOTROPE OF CARBON) DIAMOND (ALLOTROPE OF
IODINE CARBON)

Chemical Properties of Metals : (2)

Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
Metal + Water → Metal oxide +
Hydrogen
Metal + Dilute Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
(Note : All metals do not react in the
same manner.)

NATURE OF OXIDES :
Amphoteric oxides : (2)

Metal oxides which react with both acids as well as

bases to produce salts and water are known as
amphoteric oxides.
Metal oxides Non-metal oxides – E.g. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), Zinc oxide (ZnO)
– ACIDIC Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
BASIC Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O

REACTIVITY SERIES : (2)

The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of their decreasing activities.
Reactivity series has been developed by performing displacement reactions.
 A more reactive metal (A) displaces a less reactive metal (B) from its salt solution.
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B
e.g. Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Some metals arranged in decreasing order of activity : Al > Zn > Fe > Cu

IONIC COMPOUNDS : (2)

Compounds formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are known as ionic
compounds (or electrovalent compounds).

Ionic compound formation :

Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)

Properties of ionic compounds : (2)

1. Solid and hard (due to strong force of attraction between ions)

2. High melting and boiling points (due to high amount of energy to break strong inter-ionic attraction)
3. Generally soluble in water (by dissociation of ions)
4. Conduct electricity in molten state and in aqueous solution (due to free movement of ions)
 QUESTIONS

1. Name (i) a metal which can be easily cut with a knife

(ii) a non-metal which is a good conductor of electricity. (1)

2.(a) Oxide of an element ‘X’ was found to convert red litmus to blue.

What does this tell about the nature of the oxide? Is ‘X’ a metal or a non-metal?

(b)What happens when Zinc granules are added to dilute Sulphuric acid?

(c) Why are ionic compounds good conductors of electricity? (3)

3. (a) What do you understand by reactivity series?

(b) Arrange Fe, Zn, Cu and Al in decreasing order of activity? Which is most reactive among them?
(3)
 CHAPTER 4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Syllabus for 2020-21 : Covalent bonding in carbon compounds. Versatile nature of

carbon. Homologous series

Deletion for 2020-21 : Nomenclature of carbon compounds containing functional

groups (halogens, alcohol, ketones, aldehydes, alkanes and alkynes), difference
between saturated hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons, Chemical properties
of carbon compounds (combustion, oxidation, addition and substitution reaction),
Ethanol and Ethanoic acid (only properties and uses), soaps and detergents

Bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms are known as covalent
bonds.

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON (2)

(i) CATENATION : Carbon can link with carbon atoms by means of covalent bonds to form long chains,
branched chains and closed ring compounds. Carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds.
(ii) TETRAVALENCY : Carbon has 4 valence electrons. Carbon can bond with 4 other carbon atoms, mono-
valent atoms, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
Carbon is tetravalent, it does not form ionic bond by either losing 4 electrons or by gaining 4 electrons. So,
Carbon can form bond only by sharing of electrons and hence forms only covalent compounds.

Properties of Covalent compounds : (1)

* Have low melting and boiling points as they have weak intermolecular forces
* Are generally poor conductors of electricity as there is sharing of electrons and no ions are formed.

Compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon only are called hydrocarbons. E.g. CH4
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON (2)

GRAPHITE DIAMOND
*Hexagonal arrays placed in layers one *Rigid 3-Dimensional structure
above the other ( 2-Dimensional structure)
*Each carbon atom bonded to three other *Each carbon atom bonded to four other
carbon atoms, one of the bonds being
carbon atoms
double bond
*Hardest known substance
*Smooth and slippery
*Bad conductor
*Good conductor
*Uses - cutting tools, jewellery
*Uses - lubricant, pencil

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES (2)

A series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain is
called a homologous series.
E.g., Alkanes - CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10

Characteristics of a Homologous Series

*Have same general formula
*Differ by a -CH2 group
*Difference in molecular formula is 14u
*Show regular gradation in physical properties but have same chemical properties

STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM (3)

Compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures are called structural isomers.
The two structural isomers of Butane with molecular formula C 4H10 are

n-butane iso-butane
The three structural isomers of Pentane with molecular formula C 5H12 are

QUESTIONS

1. Why does carbon atom form a large number of compounds? (1)

2. Which of the following is a good conductor of electricity - Diamond or Graphite? Why?(2)
3. What is structural isomerism? Draw the structural isomers of Butane and Pentane. (3)
4. What is a homologous series? Explain with the help of an example. (3)
5. C3H6, C4H8, C5H10 belong to the same homologous series. Arrange these hydrocarbons in order of
increasing boiling points. Give reason also. (2)
 CHAPTER 5

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Syllabus for 2020-21 : Need for classification, early attempts at classification of
elements (Dobereiner’s Triads, Newland’s Law of Octaves, Mendeleev’s Periodic Table),
Modern periodic table, gradation in properties, valency, atomic size, metallic and non-
metallic properties

DOBEREINER’S TRIADS : When three elements are written in the order of increasing (1)
atomic masses, the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the average of
the atomic masses of the other two elements. E.g. Li, Na, K

MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC LAW : The properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic masses.

THE MODERN PERIODIC LAW : The properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic number.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE : (3)

1. Mendeleev sometimes placed an element with a slightly greater atomic mass before an element
with a slightly lower atomic mass. The sequence was inverted so that elements with similar
properties could be grouped together. Eg. Cobalt (atomic mass 58.9) appeared before Nickel
(atomic mass 58.7).
2. Mendeleev left some gaps in his periodic table and boldly predicted the existence of some
elements that had not been discovered at that time. E.g. Scandium, Gallium and Germanium
discovered later have properties similar to the elements predicted by Mendeleev as Eka-Boron,
Eka-Aluminium and Eka-Silicon respectively.
3. One of the strengths of Mendeleev’s periodic table was that when noble gases were discovered,
they could be placed in a new group without disturbing the existing order.
LIMITATIONS OF MENDELEEV’S CLASSIFICATION :
1. No fixed and correct position can be given to hydrogen.
2. Isotopes of all elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s periodic law.
3. Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one element to the next. So it
was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between two elements,
especially when we consider the heavier elements.

How does the Modern Periodic Table take care of three limitations of Mendeleev’s
Periodic Table?
1. Hydrogen was given correct position.
2. The atomic number of each element is unique. So isotopes did not create any kind of
challenge as all isotopes of the same element have same atomic no.
3. The atomic number increases by one in going from one element to the next.
It could be easily ascertained as to how many elements would be found in between
two given elements.

Identifying group and period based on atomic number in Modern Periodic Table :
(3)
Step-1 : Write electronic configuration on the basis of atomic number.
Step-2 : Look at the no. of electrons present in the valence shell (outermost shell).
It helps us to find group number.
Step-3 : Count the number of shells. It helps us to find the period number.
 Electronic No. of Group
configuration electrons in no.
valence shell
2,1 1 1
Electronic No. of Period no.
2,8,2 2 2
configuration shells
2,8,3 3 13
2 1 1
2,8,4 4 14
2,5 2 2
2,8,5 5 15
2,8,3 3 3
2,8,6 6 16
2,8,8,1 4 4
2,8,7 7 17
2,8,8 8 18

TRENDS IN PROPERTIES IN MODERN PERIODIC TABLE :

(3)
1. Atomic size or atomic radii

Down the group – INCREASES Across the period – DECREASES

(due to increase in no. of shells) (due to increase in effective nuclear charge)

2. Valency

Down the group – Across the period –

REMAINS SAME FIRST INCREASES AND THEN DECREASES

3. Metallic character (electropositive nature /tendency to lose electron)

Down the group – Across the period -

INCREASES DECREASES
4. Non-metallic character (electronegative nature/tendency to gain electron)

Down the group – Across the period -

DECREASES INCREASES

QUESTIONS

1. Mention three limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table. How did the Modern Periodic
Table take care of these limitations? (3)
2. An element P has electronic configuration 2,8,5. In which group and period will it
be placed? Another element Q has electronic configuration 2,5. Can it be placed in same
group and period as element P? (2)

3. What trends are observed in atomic size in Modern Periodic Table when we move (i) down the
group ? (ii) across the period? Why? (3)
 CHAPTER 6 : LIFE PROCESSES

Life processes: Topics covered : Basic concept of nutrition, respiration, transport and
excretion in plants and animals.

The processes which together perform the function of maintenance of ‘life’ are called as life
processes.
Nutrition, respiration, circulation, excretion are examples of essential life processes.

Nutrition
Nutrition is the process of taking in food and converting it into energy and other vital nutrients
required for life.
There are two main modes of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic.

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

Organisms which can make their own food
using simple inorganic materials like water and
carbon dioxide in the presence of light and
chlorophyll are called autotrophs.
Examples of autotrophs : Plants, algae and
cyanobacteria
The organisms which cannot produce food on
their own and depend on other
sources/organisms are called heterotrophs.
Examples of heterotrophs
:Parasites (e.g. leeches, ticks)
Saprophytes (e.g. mushrooms)
Holozoic (e.g. humans, dogs)

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The process of photosynthesis can be explained in three stages :
• The chlorophyll present in leaves traps the light coming from the sun.
• The absorbed light energy gets converted into chemical energy. And water
absorbed splits into hydrogen and oxygen molecules.
• At last, carbon dioxide gets reduced i.e. hydrogen molecules combine with carbon to
form carbohydrates (sugar molecules).

Photosynthesis is usually represented by the chemical equation

6CO2 + 6H2O + light →C6H12O6 +6O2
Nutrition in Amoeba

Amoeba feeds by holozoic mode of nutrition.

It takes in the food particle using pseudopodia,
the process is called ingestion.

. The engulfed food gets enclosed in a food

vacuole.
As the food vacuole passes through the
cytoplasm, digestion, absorption and
assimilation take place.

When the food vacuole opens to outside,

egestion of undigested food takes place .
Nutrition in Humans : Digestive System in Humans

The digestive system has an alimentary canal and digestive glands, which together function to
nourish the body.

Alimentary Canal
Alimentary canal starts with the mouth and ends with the anus. Oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine and large intestine are the parts of the alimentary canal.

Mouth
It is the opening of the alimentary canal and helps in ingestion of food.
The buccal cavity has teeth and tongue. The set of teeth helps in the
breaking down of food. The tongue helps in tasting and swallowing the
food.
The salivary glands open also in the buccal cavity and pour saliva which contains salivary
amylase, an enzyme to break down starch. The salivary amylase converts starch into maltose.

Oesophagus
The swallowed food passes into the oesophagus. It is a muscular tube in which food is pushed
down by peristaltic movements.

Stomach
The stomach is a thick-walled bag-like structure.
Theinnerliningofthestomachsecretesmucous,hydrochloricacidanddigestivejuices. Enzyme
called pepsin present in the gastric juice breaks down proteins
Hydrochloric acid helps in digestion of proteins and also kills harmful bacteria.
Mucus secreted by the wall of the stomach helps in protection from HCl.

Liver
The liver secretes bile which is stored in the gall bladder. Bile emulsifies the fats into smaller
globules. This process is called ‘Emulsification’. Lipase is the enzyme which acts on the
emulsified fats and breaks them down into glycerol and fatty acids.

Pancreas
The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and its secretion is called as pancreatic juice.
Enzymes like trypsin, lipase, amylase are present in the pancreatic juice.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, about 20 feet long in humans.
The internal surface of the small intestine is folded into finger-like projections called villi. They
increase the surface area for absorption of digested food.
The digestion process gets completed and absorption takes place in the small intestine.
The end products of digestion are: Carbohydrates into glucose, fats into fatty acids and
glycerol and proteins into amino acids.
Large Intestine
The large intestine is not involved in the digestion of food or absorption of nutrients.
The major function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food
matter and make the stool solid. The waste is thrown out of the body through Anus.

Questions:
1) Differentiate between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. ( 2 marks)
2) Write the three steps of photosynthesis.(3 marks)
3) Show nutrition in amoeba with the help of a neat labeled diagram.( 2 marks)
4) What is the role of liver in digestion of fats? ( 2 marks)

Respiration
Respiration broadly means the exchange of gases.
At a cellular level, respiration means the burning of the food for generating the energy needed
for other life processes.
Respiration may take place in the presence or absence of oxygen.

Two Types of Respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Cellular respiration that takes place in
the presence of oxygen to produce
energy.
It takes place in multicellular organisms
like plants and animals.
Cellular respiration that takes place in
the absence of oxygen to produce
energy.
It takes place in smaller organisms like
yeast and is also called fermentation.
Respiration in Muscles
Respiration in muscles can be anaerobic when there is not enough oxygen.
Glucose gets broken down to carbon dioxide and lactic acid.
This results in the accumulation of lactic acid that results in muscle cramps.

Human Respiratory System

Following are the main structures in the human respiratory system :

Nostrils: The inner lining of the nostrils is lined by hair and remains wet due to mucus secretion.
The mucus and the hair help in filtering the dust particles out from inhaled air.
Pharynx: It is a tube-like structure which continues after the nasal passage.
Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called voice box.
Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of
trachea.
Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea, with one bronchus going to each lung.
Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches inside the lung.
Alveoli: There are air sacs at the end of bronchioles. Exchange of gases takes place between
an alveolar surface and surrounding blood vessels. Alveoli provide a large surface area for
exchange of gases.
Questions :
1) What are the different ways of breakdown of glucose? (3 marks)
2) Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration. (3 marks)
3) How do alveoli help in exchange of gases? ( 2 marks)

Transportation in Humans
Transportation in humans is done by the circulatory system which mainly consists of blood,
blood vessels and heart. It is responsible for the supply of oxygen, nutrients, removal of carbon
dioxide and other excretory products
Heart
It is the muscular pumping organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left. Blood
delivers oxygen, hormones, glucose and other components to various parts of the body
Humans have four chambers in heart:
Left atrium, Right atrium, Left ventricle, Right ventricle

Double Circulation
In the human body, blood circulates through the heart twice.
Once it goes through the heart during pulmonary circulation and second time during systemic
circulation. Double circulation ensures complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood which is necessary for optimum energy production in warm-blooded animals. Hence,
circulation in human beings is called double circulation.
The blood vessels :
Veins – It supplies deoxygenated blood to the heart. They are thin-walled and have valves.
Capillaries – They are very thin tube-like vessels making a network between arteries and veins.
Arteries – These are muscular tubes responsible for supplying oxygenated blood away from the
heart to all other parts of the body. They are thick-walled and have no valves.

Transportation in Plants

Phloem
Phloem transports nutrients and sugars (in all directions) like carbohydrates, produced by the
leaves to other parts of the plant.
Transport of food in the plant through phloem is called as translocation.
Xylem
Xylem tissue transports water (unidirectional) in plants from root to all other parts of the plant..

Questions:

1) Differentiate between an artery and vein.( 2 Marks)

2) Why does blood get circulated twice in human heart?
(2 marks)
3) How does food and water get transported in plants?
( 2 marks)

Excretion in human beings:

❖ Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion.

❖ The metabolic activities in the body generate many kinds of wastes including
nitrogenous wastes which are harmful for the body and hence need to be
removed.

The excretory system in humans includes:

A pair of kidneys,
A pair of ureters: Set of tubes which
come out of each kidney and goes to
the urinary bladder.
A urinary bladder: Bag like structure
where Urine is collected. Urine is
expelled out through urethra.
Urethra - It produces urine as a waste
product.
Kidney: Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies
near the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity.
The kidney is composed of many filtering units,
•
called nephrons. Nephron is called the
functional unit of kidney.
 Nephron :
It is composed of tubes and a filtering
part, called glomerulus.

The glomerulus is a network of blood

capillaries to which renal artery is
attached.

The glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule

like portion, called bowman’s capsule.
The bowman’s capsule extends into a
fine tube which is highly coiled.

Tubes from various nephrons converge

into collecting duct, which finally goes to
the ureter.

Urine formation in the kidney: The urine formation involves three steps:

• Glomerular filtration.
• Tubular absorption
• Secretion
Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it is
stored until it is released through the urethra.
The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste products from the blood i.e., urea which is
produced in the liver.
Haemodialysis: The process of purifying blood by an artificial kidney. It is meant for kidney
failure patient.

QUESTIONS :
1) Name the filtration unit of kidney. Write down its functions.(2 marks)

2) Draw a well labeled diagram of human excretory system and also write down the function of
each part.(3marks)
3) Explain the process of urine formation.(2 marks)
4) Draw a neat diagram of excretory unit of human kidney and label the following parts:( 2 marks for
labeling and 1 mark for diagram)

A.Bowman’s capsule B. Renal Artery C. Glomerulus D. Collecting duct

 CHAPTER 8
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
Reproduction: Reproduction in animals and plants (asexual and sexual) reproductive health
need and methods of family planning. Safe sex vs HIV/AIDS. Child bearing and women’s
health.

REPRODUCTION:-Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of

the same kind.
IMPORTANCE OF REPRODUCTION:-Reproduction is necessary for the survival and increase in
population of a species. If organisms do not reproduce, their population decreases and species will
become extinct.
There are two ways by which organisms reproduce:
Asexual Reproduction and Sexual reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:-In this process, only a single parent is involved and no gamete formation
takes place.

Kinds of Asexual reproduction

1.Fission 4.Budding
2.Fragmentation5.Spore formation
3.Regeneration 6.Vegetativepropagation
FISSION:-The term “fission” means to divide. Fission is an asexual reproduction by which a unicellular
organism divides and forms two or more new individuals. It is of two types-
(I)Binary fission (II) Multiple fission

(I) Binary fission:-During binary fission, the parent cell divides into two daughter cells. First the nucleus
divides and forms two nuclei. Then the cytoplasm divides and forms two daughter cells. E.g.:- Amoeba,
Paramaecium and Leishmania.

BINARY FISSIONINAMOEBA BINARY FISSION INLEISHMANIA

(II) Multiple fission: - In this method, the unicellular organism gets divided into many daughter cells.
Each daughter cell forms a new organism. The parent cell breaks down and leaves many daughter
cells. E.g.:- Plasmodium (malaria parasite), Leishmania.
 FRAGMENTATION:-In this method the parent body divides into several fragments and each fragment
develops into a new organism. E.g.:- Spirogyra.

Regeneration in Hydra
REGENERATION:- Regeneration is the power of growing a new organism. When the body of organism
cut in two parts, each part develops as a new individual organism. e.g:- Hydra

BUDDING :-In this method a bud like projection is formed on the body of the organism. The bud
develops into a new individual. It then separates from the parent and forms an independent
individual. E.g.- hydra, yeast.

SPORE FORMATION:-In this method during unfavorable conditions, the organism develops sac-like
structures called sporangium that contain spores. When the conditions are favorable, the sporangium
bursts open and spores are released. Spores germinate to give rise to new organisms.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION:-Asexual reproduction in plants occurs through their vegetative parts such
as leaves, roots, stem and buds. This is called vegetative propagation. E.g.-
a) STEM - potato, ginger b)ROOT - sweet potato c)LEAF -Bryophyllum

QUESTIONS:-

1. Write any two differences between binary fission and multiple fission.( 2 marks)
2. Draw a labelled diagram in proper sequence to show budding in hydra. ( 2 marks)
3. Name the process by which an amoeba reproduces. Draw the various stages of its reproduction in a
proper sequence. (2 marks)
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual Reproduction: The mode of reproduction that takes place with the involvement of two
individuals of two different sexes i.e. male and female.

*During sexual reproduction, male organism produces male gametes i.e. sperms.
*The female organism produces female gametes i.e. ova or eggs.
*Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction :

▪ It increases the chances of genetic variations.

▪ It results in the origin of new species.
▪ It maintains DNA in a species.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants:

• The reproductive parts are present in the flower.

• The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamen and carpel.
• Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in bud
stage.
• Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
• Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain male
gametes. Each stamen has two parts— Filament (stalk) and Anther (swollen top part
which has large number of pollen grains).
• The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules that contain female
gametes. It has three parts— Stigma (top sticky part that receives pollen grains
during pollination), Style (the middle long part) and Ovary (swollen part that contains
ovules). Each ovule has an egg cell i.e. female gamete
BISEXUAL FLOWER:
Has both stamen and carpel. E.g. Mustard, China Rose (Hibiscus).

UNISEXUAL FLOWER:
Has either stamen or carpel. E.g. Papaya, Watermelon.

QUESTIONS:-
QUESTIONS:
1. Draw a labelled diagram of longitudinal section of a flower. (3 marks)
2. Write down the parts of male and female reproductive organs of a
plant. ( 2 marks)
3. Give two example of each a) unisexual flower b) bisexual flower ( 1
mark)
Pollination : The process of transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a
flower is called pollination. Two types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another
flower.

Pollination is followed by FERTILIZATION

Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote
during sexual reproduction. The events are:
*Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
*Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the ovary
*Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female germ cell (egg).
• Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with female
germ cell and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e.embryo.
• Post-fertilization changes:
After fertilization following changes
takes place in the flower :

• Zygote divides several

times and forms an
embryo inside theovule.
• The ovule changes into
the seed.
• The ovary ripens to
form a fruit.
• Petals, sepals, stamens,
style and stigma shrivel
and falloff.

QUESTIONS:-
1. Name the female reproductive parts of a plant that changes into: ( 1 mark)
A)Seed. B)Fruit
2. Explain the changes taking place in flower post fertilization. ( 3 marks)
3. Show diagrammatically fertilization in a flowering plant. (2 marks)
 Reproduction in Human Beings:
.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male Reproductive System

consists of the following:

One pair of Testes

A system of ducts – (a)Vas deferens or

the sperm duct (b)Urethra
A system of glands – (a)Seminal
vesicles (b)Prostrate gland
A Penis

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies
outside the abdominal cavity, because the testes have to be maintained at 1-3
degrees lesser temperature than the normal body temperature in order to produce
functional sperms.

Functions of testes

• To produce sperms.
• To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone.

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male
body. Functions of the glands: They produce different secretions which provide
nutrition as well as medium for locomotion to the sperms.
The secretion of the glands along with the sperms is known as semen.
Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for the outflow of semen and urine both
from the body.
Penis: It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into the female body. It is richly
supplied with blood vessels.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Female Reproductive System
consists of the following :

• 1 pair of ovaries
• 1 pair of fallopian tubes or
oviducts
• A uterus/womb
• A vagina/birth canal.

At the time of birth each girl child already contains thousands of immature ova.
These ova start maturing only from the time of puberty. Only one ovum is
produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in
alternate months. The release of an ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity
is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary

*To produce and release ova

*To produce oestrogen

Function of fallopian tube: Site of fertilisation.

Function of the uterus: Site for the development of embryo.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube
through which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months.

PLACENTA

The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta. It is a disk-like structure embedded in the uterine wall. It contains finger-like villi.

QUESTIONS :

1. In a diagram of female reproductive system mark the site of:

(3 marks)
(a) Ovulation (b) Fertilization (c) Development of embryo
2. How does embryo gets oxygen and nourishment in mother’s womb?( 1
mark)
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

Sexually transmitted diseases

A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual intercourse, if one of the
partners is infected. These are known as sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs).

They can be caused by bacteria e.g. syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a

virus e.g. HIV- AIDS, warts. The transmission of these diseases can be
avoided by using birth control measures such as wearing a condom during the
sexual act.

Birth control measures

They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.
Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the fallopian tube :

• Use of condoms
• Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop

Chemical methods

• Use of spermicides
• Oral contraceptive pills

Surgical method

• Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens inmale.

• Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating reproductive organ i.e. the
fallopian tube in female.

Advantages of contraception: Help in birth control, prevent sexually transmitted

diseases, prevent unwanted pregnancies, keep population explosion in check.

QUESTIONS :

1. Name two diseases that are sexually transmitted by: ( 1 mark)

A) Bacteria. B)Virus
3. How can AIDS be prevented? (2 marks)
4. Differentiate between vasectomy and tubectomy. ( 2 marks)
 CHAPTER 9: HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
Heredity: Heredity; Mendel’s contribution- Laws for inheritance of traits: Sex
determination: brief introduction

Deleted syllabus : Basic concepts of evolution

As we all know that offspring are produced during reproduction, the offspring of the same parent
do not resemble with each other. It is called variation. We also see that many of the
characteristics of children are same as their parents, grandparents and maternal grandparents.
The transmission of characters/traits from one generation to the next generation is called
Heredity. The branch of Science in which we study Heredity and Variation is called Genetics.

Mendel is known as Father of Genetics.

Mendel chose pea plant (Pisum sativum) for his experiment due to following reasons:
(i) availability of contrasting traits of several characters.
(ii) Their life span is short.
(iii) Normally self-pollination occurs but cross-pollination can also be done by artificial
means.
(iv) Large no of seeds produced.

Rules for inheritance of Traits

❖ Both the mother and the father contribute practically equal amount of genetic material to
the child.
❖ Chromosomes are located in the nucleus of each and every cell of human being.
❖ Chromosomes are made up of DNA and gene are the part of DNA.
❖ Genes are always found in pairs in human beings and are called structural
and functional units of heredity.
❖ This pair shows the contrast characters in which one is dominant and other one
is recessive.
❖ This shows that each character can be influenced by both mother and father DNA.

Contrasting characters in pea plant

Character/trait Dominant Recessive

Size of plant Tall Dwarf
Shape of seed Round Wrinkled
Color of seed Yellow Green
Color of flower Purple White
Monohybrid Cross: Cross between two plants with one pair of contrasting characters is
called a monohybrid cross

Observations

➢ All plants of F1 generation were tall,

no medium sized plants

➢ F2 progeny 3/4 tall and 1/4 were

dwarf

➢ Phenotypic Ratio = 3: 1
(3 Tall and 1 Dwarf)

➢ Genotypic Ratio= 1: 2:1

(1 tall TT, 2 Tall Tt, 1 Small tt)

Conclusions

➢ Tt and TT both are tall plants while tt are short plants.

➢ A single copy of ‘T’ is enough to make plant tall while both copies have to be ‘t’ for plant
to be short

➢ Character/trait like T is called dominant trait because it expresses itself and t is called
recessive trait because it remains suppressed.

➢ The character that shows itself in F1 generation is always a Dominant character/Trait

and that does not express itself is Recessive Character/Trait.

This is because of Law of Dominance given by Mendel.

Dihybrid Cross:

A cross between two plants having two

pairs of contrasting characters is called
Dihybrid Cross.

Conclusions :
➢ Round and yellow seeds are
dominant characters because
they appeared in F1 generation.

➢ Occurrence of new phenotypic

combinations shows thatgenes
for round /wrinkled and green/
yellow seeds are inherited
independently of eachother.

YYRR :Yellow Round Seeds (Dominant Characters)

yyrr :Green and wrinkled seeds (Recessive Characters)

Now answer the following question:

1 Why Mendel chose Pea plant for his experiment? (2 marks)

2 Mendel crossed a pea plant having round green seeds with pea plant having wrinkled yellow
seeds (3 marks)
i. What type of cross is it?
ii. What type of plants are obtained in F1generation?
iii. In F2 generation phenotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1. State the rule of inheritance of traits as
observed by Mendel?

1. In human gene B gives brown eyes and gene b gives blue eyes. What will be the color of
the eye of the person if the combination of genes is BB, Bb, bb?

2. A blue coloured flower plant denoted by BB is crossed with that of white coloured flower
plant denoted bb.( 3 marks)
(a) State the color of flower you would expect in their F1generation
(b) What must be the percentage of white coloured flower plant in F2 generation if flower of
F1 plants are self pollinated?
(c) State the expected ratio of the genotypes BB, Bb and bb in the F2progeny?
 Sex Determination
Factors responsible for sex determination
Environment :The temperature at which the fertilized
eggs are kept decide the gender. E.g. Turtle

Genetic :The gender is determined by pair of

chromosomes called sex chromosomes.
XX Female
XY Male

Chromosomes
In human beings there are 23 pair of chromosomes.
22 pairs of chromosomes similar in both male and female
are called Autosomes.
One pair of chromosomes which is different in both male
and female and decide the gender is called sex chromosome.
• Probability that the child born will be a girl or a boy is50%.
• All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother regardless whether they
are boys or girls.
• Thus the sex of a child is decided what they inherit from their father not from
their mother.

1. In humans there is a 50% probability of the birth of a boy and 50% probability that a girl will be
born. Justify the statement based on the mechanism of sex determination in human beings.( 3
marks)
 CHAPTER: 10
LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

REVISED SYLLABUS
Reflection of light by curved surfaces; Images formed by spherical
mirrors, centre of curvature, principal axis, principal focus, focal
length, mirror formula (Derivation not required), magnification.
Refraction; Laws of refraction, refractive index. Refraction of light by
spherical lens; Image formed by spherical lenses; Lens formula
(Derivation not required); Magnification. Power of a lens.
 Laws of reflection (2)

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of

reflection.
2. The incident ray, the normal to the reflecting surface
at the point of incidence and reflected ray from that
point, all lie in the same plane.

Uses Of Concave Mirror (1)

• Shaving mirrors.
• Head mirrors
• Headlights.
• Solar furnaces.
Uses of convex mirror
As rear view mirror in vehicles because they always
give an erect and diminished image and have wider
field of view.

Principal Focus of concave mirror: The principal focus is defined as the point on the
principal axis where the light rays travelling parallel to the principal axis after reflection
actually meet.
Principal Focus of convex mirror: The principal focus is defined as the point on the principal
axis where the light rays travelling parallel to the principal axis after reflection appears to
meet.

a) Concave mirror
b) Convex mirror
Centre of curvature(C) is the centre of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part.
Focal length (f): The distance between focus and pole is called focal length.

Radius of curvature (R) is the linear distance between the pole and the centre of curvature.

𝐑
𝐟=
𝟐

Pole (P) is the centre of reflecting surface of a spherical mirror.

Principal axis is an imaginary line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of a
spherical mirror

Where
u= Object distance
Mirror v= image distance
Formula f= focal length
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 m= magnification
= + h’= height of
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮
𝐡′ image
𝐦=
𝐡 h= height of
𝐯 object.
=−
𝐮

The new Cartesian Sign convention for

spherical mirrors.

Laws of refraction (2)

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant,
for the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is known as
Snell’s law of refraction.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∠𝐢
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∠𝒓
This constant value is called refractive index of the second medium with respect to the
first medium.
 Refractive index of medium (2)
= speed of light in vacuum (c)/ speed of light in given medium(v)
c
n=v

Note: refractive index is unit less quantity.

Refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t medium1 = n21
Refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t medium2= n12
Speed of light in medium 1 = v1
Speed of light in medium 2 = v2

Formula for refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t medium 1

n21 = v1/v2
Formula for refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t medium 2
n12= v2 /v1

Ray diagram: Refraction of light through a glass slab. (3)

EO: INCIDENT RAY

OO’: REFRACTED RAY
O’H: EMERGENT RAY

Lateral Displacement: The perpendicular shift in the

path of light, seen when it emerges out from the
refracting medium is called lateral displacement.

∠i1 : angle of incidence

∠r1 : angle of refraction

Light falling perpendicularly on glass slab: ∠r2 : angle of emergence

When the light falls perpendicularly or normally on
the surface of a glass slab, it goes straight.
There is no bending ray of light on entering the
glass slab or coming out of it.
Angle of incidence and angle of refraction is ZERO
Angle of incidence is equal to angle of
emergence
The emergent ray is parallel to incident ray
when a ray of light passes through glass
slab.
 Where
u= Object distance h’= height of image
Lens formula v= image distance h= height of object.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 f= focal length
= −
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮 m= magnification
𝐡′ 𝐯
𝐦= =
𝐡 𝐮

CONVEX LENS CONCAVE LENS:

Converging lens: It is diverging lens.
In the convex lens the rays of light coming Concave lens is thinner at the middle and
parallel to principal axis after refraction through thicker at the edges.
the lens passes through focus, since it converge
all the rays at one point, that’s why it is known
converging lens.
Convex lens is thicker in the middle and thinner at
the edges.

a) Convex lens (converging lens)

b) Concave lens (diverging lens)

Power of lens: power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length.
It is represented by letter P. “ f ” is expressed in metres.
The SI unit of power is Dioptre (D)
𝟏
𝐏=
𝐟(𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬)
1D=1m-1
 QUESTIONS
1. Refractive index of water with respect to air is 1.33. What is the refractive index of air with respect to
water? (1)
2. What are the two factors on which lateral displacement of an emergent ray from a glass slab depends?
(2)
HINT : lateral displacement depends on
a. Thickness of the glass slab and
b. Angle of incidence.
3. What is the difference between virtual image of an object formed by a convex lens and that formed by a
concave lens? (1)
HINT: Virtual image formed by a convex lens is always magnified but that formed by a concave lens is
diminished.
4. What type of lens has a negative power? (1)
Ans: A concave lens has negative power.

5. The power of a lens is + 5 D. Find its focal length in metres. (1)

𝟏
HINT: Focal length=
𝐏
1
=
5
= 0.2 m
6. An object 4 cm in height, is placed at 15 cm in front of a concave mirror of focal length 10cm.At what
distance from the mirror should a screen be placed to obtain a sharp image of the object. Calculate the
height of the image. (3)
Ans :

Height of the object, h=4cm h'/h= -v/u

Object distance, u= -15cm h'/4= -(-30)/(-15)
Focal length, f= -10cm h'/4= -2
Mirror formula h'= -8cm
1/f=1/v+1/u Height of the image is 8cm
1/v=1/f-1/u Negative sign indicate that image is
1/v=1/(-10)-1/(-15) inverted.
1/v=-1/10+1/15
1/v= (2-3)/30
1/v= -1/30
v= -30cm
The screen should be placed 30cm in
front of mirror.
7. A 10 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal length 12 cm. The
distance of the object from the lens is 18 cm. Find the nature, position and size of the image.
Ans:

Given: Image is formed at the distance of

Height of the object, h= 10cm 36cm from the lens on opposite side.
Focal length, f= +12cm m=h'/h= v/u
Object distance, u= -18cm h'/h= v/u
Lens formula h/10 = 36/(-18)
I/f=1/v-1/u h'/10= -2
1/v=1/f+1/u h'= -2×10
1/v=1/12+1/(-18) h'= -20cm
1/v= (3-2)/36 height of the image is 20cm.
1/v= 1/36 image is real, inverted and enlarged.
V = 36cm

8. Focal length of a convex lens is 25 cm. Find its power? (1)

HINT: f= +25cm
=+ 0.25 m
1
Power = focal length(in metres)
1
= +0.25
= +4D

9. Radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is 20 cm. What is its focal length? (1)
𝑅
HINT: 𝑓 =
2
Focal Length= 20/2
=10cm
 CHAPTER: 11
The Human Eye and the Colourful world.

REVISED SYLLABUS:
Refraction of light through a prism, dispersion of light, scattering of light,
applications in daily life
DELETED PORTION:
Functioning of a lens in Human eye, defects of vision and their corrections,
applications of spherical mirrors and lenses.
 Refraction of light through Prism: (2)
Prism: An optical prism has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces,
which are inclined to each other. PE – incident ray
EF- refracted ray
FS- Emergent ray
∠A- Angle of prism
∠i- Angle of incidence
∠r- Angle of refraction
∠e- Angle of emergence
∠D- Angle of deviation

i) Angle of prism: The angle between the two lateral faces of the prism is called angle of
prism.
ii) Angle of deviation: The angle between incident ray and emergent ray.

Dispersion of light: (2)

The splitting of white light into it constituents seven colours is called dispersion.
Cause of dispersion: When beam of white light enters a glass prism the light ray bend towards the
normal. The different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray.
The red light bends the least while violet light bends the most.
Spectrum: The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called spectrum.
i.e. VIBGYOR
Atmospheric Refraction: The refraction of light by the Earth’s atmosphere is known as
atmospheric refraction. (2)
Twinkling of stars: The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. When starlight
enters the earth’s atmosphere, it undergoes refraction continuously. Due this atmospheric refraction light
bend towards the normal as a result, the star appears slightly above the actual position. Further this position
of star keeps on changing slightly due to which amount of light entering the eye flickers which produces
twinkling effect.

Advance sunrise and delayed sunset. (3)

Advance sunrise and delayed sunset are phenomena caused due to atmospheric refraction.
When the sun is slightly below the horizon, the sunlight coming from the vacuum (rarer
medium) to air (denser medium) is refracted downwards. So the sun appears to be
above the horizon. Similarly, even after actual sunset, the sun can be seen for a few
minutes due to refraction of sunlight.
 Rainbow formation: (3)
A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after rain shower. It is
caused by dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the
atmosphere. The water droplets act like small prism. They refract and disperse
the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally and finally refract it again.
Due to dispersion of light and internal reflection different colours appear.

Scattering of light: Scattering of light is the phenomenon of spreading of light in all direction
by tiny particles like air molecules, dust particles, colloidal solutions etc. (1)

Why is the colour of the clear sky blue? (1)

When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine

particles in air scatter the blue colour more strongly than red.
 (3)
Tyndall effect: The phenomenon of
scattering of light by colloidal particles
Why are danger
gives rise to Tyndall effect.
signal lights red
Examples
in colour?
1. Tyndall effect can be observed when
Danger signal lights
sunlight passes through a canopy of a
are red in colour
dense forest, then the path of light
because red
becomes visible.
colour is least
2. The visible beam of headlight in fog.
scattered by fog
3. When a beam of light enters a smoke
or smoke.
filled room through a small hole, then
(1)
path of light becomes visible.
 QUESTIONS
1. State the cause of dispersion of white light passing through a glass prism. How did Newton show that
white light of Sun contains seven colours using two identical glass prisms? Draw a ray diagram to show
the path of light when two identical glass prisms are arranged together in inverted position with respect
to each other and a narrow beam of white light is allowed to fall over likely on one of the faces of the first
prism. (3)
HINT: Cause of dispersion: different colours of light deviate through different angles on passing through a
glass prism. As a result of which different colour split on coming out from the prism along different
directions.

2. List of factor on which scattering of light depends. (1)

Ans: scattering of light depends on the size of scattering particle and the wavelength of light.

3. What is rainbow? Draw a labelled diagram to show the formation of rainbow. (3)
4. What is scattering of light? Use this phenomenon to explain why (3)
a) The sun appears reddish at sunrise, and
b) The clear sky appears blue.
 CHAPTER: 12
ELECTRICITY

Revised syllabus:
Electric current, potential difference and electric current. Ohm’s
law; Resistance, Resistivity, Factors on which the resistance of a
conductor depends. Series combination of resistors, parallel
combination of resistors and its applications in daily life. Heating
effect of electric current and its applications in daily life. Electric
power, Interrelation between P, V, I and R.
Electric Current: Rate of flow of SI unit of current is “Ampere”. 1A= 1Cs-1
electric charges is called Electric current. 1Ampere: One ampere is equivalent to the flow of
Q one coulomb per second.
I= (1)
t
I= Electric Current Ammeter: It is an instrument which is used to
Q= net charge flows any cross-section of measure the electric current in a circuit. Ammeter
a conductor is always connected in series with the load or
t= time (1) source.
(1)
Voltmeter: Instrument used to measure potential
difference. Voltmeter is always connected in
parallel across the load. (1)

Electric circuit: A Continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.
Potential Difference: The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying
current is defined as the work done to move a unit positive charge from one point to another
point..
Potential difference between two points= Works done / Charge
𝐖
𝐕=
𝐐
The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt .
1 Volt =1 Joule/1Coulomb
1V=1JC-1 (2)
 Ohm's law: The potential difference (V) across the end of a given metallic wire in an
electric circuit is directly proportional to the current(I) flowing through it, provided its
temperature remain the same.
V∝ I
𝐕
Or = CONSTANT
𝐈
=R

V = IR

‘R’ is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called the
resistance.
Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). (3)
1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere.

V-I graph for a nichrome wire.

V-I graph is a straight line. ( A straight line plot shows that as the current through a wire increases,
the potential difference across the wire increases linearly – this is ohms law.)
Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends
I) On its length, L
II) On its area of cross- section, A
III) On the nature of material
Resistance is directly proportional to the length of conductor, l
R ∝ L …………………………………………….(1)
Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross section, A
R ∝ 1/ A …………………………………………….(2)
On combining equation 1 and 2
𝛒𝐋
R=
𝐀
Where ‘ρ’ is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of the material of
conductor.

The SI unit of resistivity is ohm meter ( Ω m ).

The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of constituent metals, alloys do not oxidized (burn) readily at
high temperatures for this reason they are commonly used in electrical heating device like electric iron, toaster etc.

Tungsten is used for Wire copper and Aluminum

filament of electric bulbs. are generally used for
Electrical transmission lines.

Resistance in series

Rs=R1+R2+R3
Resistance in parallel

1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + /1/ R3

Joule’s law of heating : Heat produce in a reister is (2)

I) Directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance
II) Directly proportional to resistance for a given current and
III) Directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resister.

Mathematical expression for joule’s law of heating

H=I2Rt

Power: The Rate of consumption of energy in an electric circuit is called Power. (2)
Electric circuit: A Continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.
P=VI
P=I2R=V2/R

SI unit of power is Watt 1W=1 V A. The commercial unit of

(W) electric energy is kilowatt hour (KWh)
1W=1 volt X 1 ampere 1KWh= 3.6 X106 joule
 QUESTIONS
1. Three resistors of 3 ohm each are connected to a battery of 3 volt as shown in the figure calculate the
current drawn from the battery. (2)

Ans: In the given circuit combination of R1 and R2 is joined in parallel to the resistance R3.
Let resistance of combination of R1 and R2 is R’
R’=R1+R2
= 3Ω+3Ω=6Ω
Since R’ and R3 are connected in parallel, hence equivalent resistance R of the circuit is:
1/R=1/R’ + 1/R3
=1/6+1/3
1/R=1/2
R=2Ω
Current drawn from the battery I= V/R =3/2=1.5A

2. Two identical resistors are first connected in series and then in parallel. Find the ratio of equivalent
resistances in two cases. (2)

3. A bulb is rated 40W, 220V. Find the current drawn by it when it is connected to a 220 volt supply. Find its
resistance. (2)

HINT: P=40 W
V= 220 V
Current drawn by bulb I= P/V
= 40/220
= 2/11 A
Resistance of the bulb R = V/I
𝟐𝟐𝟎
= 𝟐
𝟏𝟏

= 1210 Ω.
4. (a) State ohm’s law. Express it mathematically. (5)
(b) Write symbols used in electric circuits to represent: variable resistance and voltmeter.
(c) An electric bulb is rated 220v and 100W. When it is operated on 110V, what will be the power
consumed?
 CHAPTER: 13
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

REVISED SYLLABUS:
Magnetic field, field lines, field due to a current carrying conductor, field due
to current carrying coil or solenoid; Force on current carrying conductor,
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, Electric Motor, Electromagnetic induction. Induced
potential difference, Induced current. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.

DELETED PORTION:
Electric Generator, Direct current. Alternating current: frequency of AC.
Advantage of AC over DC. Domestic electric circuits.
 Magnet
A magnet attracts magnetic substances like iron.
A compass needle is in fact a small bar magnet. The ends of the compass needle point approximately towards north
and south direction. The end point towards north is called North Pole and the other end that point towards south is
called South Pole.
Like pole repel while unlike pole of magnet attract each other.

Magnetic field: The region around a magnet in which the force of magnet can be detected is called its magnetic
field.
SI Unit Of Magnetic Field: TESLA (T)
The direction of magnetic field : The direction in which the north pole of a compass needle points.
Magnetic field can be represented by magnetic field lines.
Properties of magnetic field lines
I) Outside a magnet the magnetic field lines are directed from North Pole of magnet towards
South Pole. Inside a magnet field lines are directed from South Pole to North Pole.
II) Magnetic field lines are closed curve.
III) No two magnetic field lines can ever intersect with each other
IV) Magnetic field is stronger in the region where the field lines are crowded.
No two magnetic lines can ever intersect each other. If they do, then it would mean that at the point of
intersection there are two directions of magnetic field, which is not possible.

Magnetic field lines around bar magnet.

Magnetic field around a current carrying straight conductor.

The strength of magnetic field produced, decreases with increase in
distance from current carrying conductor.
The strength of magnetic field increases on increasing the current
flowing in the conductor.
 Magnetic field around the current carrying circular coil

Magnetic field Produce by current carrying circular

coil depend upon:
(i) Amount of current flowing
(ii) Radius of the coil and number of turns in the
given circular coil.

Magnetic field due to a current in solenoid.

Solenoid: A coil with many circular close turns of insulated copper wire is a solenoid. One end of such
a solenoid behaves like the North Pole and the other as a south pole. Therefore magnetic field due to current in
the solenoid is similar to a bar magnet.

Two ways to increase the strength of magnetic field of a solenoid.

The strength of magnetic field of a solenoid can be increased by:
I) Increasing the amount of current.
II) Increasing the number of turns.
 Fleming's right hand rule: Stretch the
thumb, forefinger and middle finger of right
hand so that they are perpendicular to each
other. If the forefinger indicates the
direction of the magnetic field and the
thumb shows the direction of motion of
conductor, then the middle finger will show
the direction of induced current.

Fleming's left hand rule: According to this

rule, stretch the thumb, forefinger and
middle finger of your left hand such that
they are mutually perpendicular. If the first
finger points in the direction of magnetic
field and the second finger in the direction
of current, then the thumb will point in the
direction of motion or the force acting on
the conductor.

Electromagnetic induction: The phenomena of the production of induced current in a coil placed in a region where
the magnetic field changes with time. Direction of induced current is given by Fleming's right hand rule.

Two devices which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction

Generator and transformer.
 Electric Motor: (5)
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Principle of working of an electric motor: A current carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences
a force. If the direction of the field and the direction of current are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the
force acting on a conductor will be perpendicular to both and will be given by Flemings left hand rule.
The function of the main parts of electric motor.
Armature: Armature coil carries current. As a result two long arms of armature coil experience equal force in
mutually opposite direction and under their influence the coil begin to rotate.
Brushes: Draw current from split rings and supply it to coil.
Split ring: The split ring reverses the direction of current in the coil, to maintain the shaft torque in the magnetic
field.

Commercial Motor (2) Galvanometer: A galvanometer is an

Commercial Motor uses
1. An electromagnet in place of
permanent magnet.
2. Large numbers of turns of the
conduction wire in the current carrying
coil.
3. Soft iron core on which coil is wound.
instrument that can detect the presence
of small amount of current. (1)
Armature: The soft iron core on which
coil is wound, plus the coils, is called an
armature. This enhances the power of
motor. (1)
 QUESTIONS
1. Mention the region of a current carrying solenoid where field lines are parallel straight lines.
(1)
Ans: Along the axis of solenoid.
2. Which law gives the direction of induced current produced due to electromagnetic induction
phenomena? (1)
Ans: Fleming's right hand rule.
3. a) What is solenoid? Draw the pattern of magnetic field line of a solenoid through which a steady
current flows.
b) Mention the two ways to increase the strength of magnetic field of a solenoid. (3)

4. (a) State Fleming's left hand rule. (5)

(b) Write the principle of working of an electric motor.
(C) Explain the function of the following parts of an electric motor
i) Armature. II) Brushes. III) Split Ring.

5. A metallic conductor is suspended perpendicular to the magnetic field of a horse-shoe magnet.

The conductor gets displaced towards left when a current is passed through it. What will happen to
the displacement of the conductor if the:
a. Current through it is increased?
b. Horse-shoe magnet is replaced by another stronger horse-shoe magnet?
c. Direction of current through it is reversed? (3)
HINT:
I) On increasing the current through metallic conductor the force experienced by it is proportionately
increased because Force is directly proportional to current.
II) On using a stronger horseshoe magnet the magnetic force increases because Force is directly
proportional to magnetic field.
III) On reversing the direction of current the direction of force is reversed and conductor is displaced
towards right instead of left direction.
 CHAPTER 15 – OUR ENVIRONMENT

Our environment: Eco-system, Environmental problems, Ozone depletion, waste

production and their solutions. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.

1. Biodegradable Wastes: Substances that are broken down by the biological processes
are said to be biodegradable. Examples: Food waste, leaves, urine and cow-dung etc.
2. Non-Biodegradable Wastes: Substances that are not broken down by biological
processes are said to be non-biodegradable. E.g. DDT, mercury, lead.

Food Chain: The sequence of living organisms in which one organism consumes another
organism to transfer food energy, is called a food chain.
A food chain is unidirectional where transfer of energy takes place in only one direction.

For example, T1(Grass) → T2(Deer) → T3(Lion)

Energy flow
Only 10% of energy is transferred to next trophic level while 90% of energy is used by
present trophic level in its life processes. This is called 10%law.
Food Web: The inter-connected food chains operating in an ecosystem which establish a
network of relationship between various species for a food web.
Depletion of Ozone Layer: Ozone (O3) layer is largely found in the stratosphere which is a
part of our atmosphere from 12 km -50 km above sea level.
Ozone is formed as a result of the following photochemical reaction.

Ozone layer is a protective blanket around earth which absorbs most of the harmful UV
(Ultraviolet) radiation of the Sun, thus, protecting the living beings of the Earth from health
hazards like skin cancer.
Biological Magnification: The increase in concentration of harmful chemical substances
like pesticides in the body of living organisms at each trophic level of a food chain is called
biological magnification.
Example:

Maximum concentration of such chemicals gets accumulated in human bodies.

QUESTIONS
1. State the 10% law of transfer of energy in the food chain.( 2 marks)

2. Why is maximum concentration of pesticides found in human bodies? (2 marks)