 Linguistic competence: Students gain knowledge about specific elements of language such as vocabulary

and grammar
 Discourse competence: Students are exposed to the structure of texts and how they are put together
 Sociolinguistic competence: Students learn about different texts and structures in the target language and
just how those are used in a particular culture
 Strategic competence: Students gain insight into different linguistic learning strategies. For example, a top
down strategy might be emphasized, where students would used the general meaning of a text to determine
its specifics. A bottom up strategy, on the other hand, would focus on the specifics, such as specific words,
and work its way up towards the general meaning

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What are some strategies to assist in reading development?

Simply having students read is not enough to develop their reading skills. Below are some activities that can help
students not only improve their reading skills, but approach the task of reading in a different way:

 Previewing: Students review titles, headings, and photo captions to gain an idea of the subject matter.
 Predicting: Students make predictions based on subject matter obtained from previewing and from the form
used.
 Skimming and scanning: Students read pieces of the text in order to confirm or refute predictions made and
determine the main idea of the text and its structure.
 Guessing from context: Students use prior knowledge of the subject and previous activities to guess at the
meaning of certain words and sections
 Paraphrasing: At the end of sections students stop to rephrase what they’ve just read in order to check for
comprehension.

A teacher cannot expect students to know these strategies naturally; it is important to develop and teach these
strategies in the classroom, whether explicity or implicitly. Some techniques for doing this are:

 Modeling the strategies aloud as a group

 Giving the students time ahead to preview the reading material
 Using fill in the blank (cloze) exercises to give the students a chance to focus on more difficult and key
vocabulary
 Encourage students to reflect on strategies used and what other ones might have been useful.

For more information… http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/stratread.htm

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How should reading activities be structured in the SL classroom?

After learning the alphabet and the sound symbol relationship, reading lessons should have three distinct parts:

 Pre-Reading Phase: In preparation for reading, it is usually a good idea to discuss as a class the learners'
experiences and knowledge relevant to the subject matter of the text before reading. This discussion
enables a sharing or pooling of knowledge, introduces some relevant concepts and vocabulary and sets up
expectations about the information contained in the text. Teachers may also need to cover key vocabulary
and/or difficult structures before learners begin the reading task.
 Reading Phase: The reading task usually begins with a specific prediction or orientation activity. This
activity may be done as a whole class, in groups, pairs or individually depending on the students’ ability
level.
 Post-Reading Phase: After reading there is a need to follow-up students' understandings and perceptions.
Listening

What is overlooked when we ask ‘do you speak such and such a language?’ Communication implies
interacting with others which involves not only speaking, but listening too. That is why listening, or oral
comprehension, is included as one of the branches of the Tree. Language teachers often experience
difficulty in trying to improve their students’ listening skills, especially in a ‘Foreign Language’ context
since learners are not exposed to the language outside of the classroom. We address this topic in this
section of the web-site.

What role does listening comprehension play in communication?

Listening comprehension is a key initial step in communication. The better a student can understand
what is being said, the better will be their ability to communicate. In addition, they will be better able to
notice the characteristics of the target language which will help improve their language development in
all four key skill areas.

Students may feel a great deal of pride when they are able to comprehend something in the target
language. This can be a great motivating factor in continuing to learn the language, and teachers should
do whatever possible to promote this sense of accomplishment. Consequently, teachers need to
construct learning activities which will enhance learners' oral comprehension (listening skills) and
motivate them, as well.

The work of Nunan and Lamb (1996) is a great help in this area. They outline a series of questions which
teachers need to consider when preparing listening activities:

What is the context for listening?

Should one or two items from the listening exercises be modeled for the whole class so that learners
know what to do?

How many times should the item be heard by students?

How will learners check the accuracy of their listening? (that is, the students’ answers?)

Is it possible to check listening accuracy to be done independently or collaboratively?

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What are some tips to help teachers develop students’ listening skills?
An effective teacher is aware that students are not always able to develop oral comprehension skills on
their own; without additional supports listening, by itself, is not enough to develop better listening skills.
Here are several activities a teacher can employ to facilitate the development of listening skills.

Promote active listening: Giving the students something to listen for ensures that they are involved in
the task. Exercise sheets are another tool that promote active listening;

Identify listening strategies: Give the students tools to guide their listening; such as, looking for specific
information, identifying predictable words or phrases, or discussing what they expect in certain forms of
speech; such as, newscasts or advertisements.;

Selecting the most appropriate strategy for presenting the lesson; for example, using a top down
(general meaning, summarizing) or bottom up (cognates, specific words, word order patterns) approach;

Allow the students to hear as much of the target language as possible while using a variety of teaching
methods; for example, sometimes using visual cues, at other times not;

Use authentic materials; for example, a lecture or a radio announcement in the target language, to help
students become accustomed to different accents and to a realistic pace of speech;

Ensure the students know the goals of the listening task: is the goal to understand what’s being said, to
decide whether to keep listening or to obtain specific information?

Provide opportunities for reflection and discussion so the students can share what was heard, what was
learned and methods they employed to better understand what was said;

Organize pre-listening activities, such as providing students with relevant vocabulary, reading a related
text, looking at a related image or clarifying necessary cultural information etc.;

Be sure to check level of the listening exercise beforehand to ensure it is an appropriate level for the
students.

Information taken from Goals and Techniques for Teaching Listening, Strategies for Developing Listening
Skills and Developing Listening Activities

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What are some examples of listening activities to use in the SL classroom?

Here are some listening activities to use with students; they range from semi-guided tasks to
unstructured tasks.

Semi-Guided Tasks (teacher may prompt with questions)

listen to a paragraph as it is read aloud and summarize it in your own words;

listen to a favorite song and summarize its contents;

listen to a dialogue, cartoon, or skit and edit where necessary;

listen to a joke or riddle which reveals something about the culture being studied;

listen to a children's story or rhyme, a fable or proverb.

Unstructured Tasks

Describe one of the following and record it onto a cassette, computer program, etc. (students may be
permitted to make some brief notes to prepare)

a process such as cooking rice or riding a bike;

a familiar person;

a landmark in your locale;

conduct a survey of native speakers regarding views on a controversial issue; present and discuss the
summary.

There are several advantages to this activity. The recordings allow participants to hear themselves
speak in the target language, which can be very helpful for shy learners. Students view this as an easier
form of homework than a written assignment which will motivate the student to complete the task.

Pre-Listening and While-Listening Activities

It is often stated that spoken and written language differ. Some reasons for this include, the following:
spoken language is often used for social interaction rather than simply presenting information; it takes
place in a context which provides visual and oral cues which assist comprehension; and, often we listen
with a particular purpose in mind, sifting through what we hear in order to meet that purpose.
Furthermore, native speakers have unstated preconceived ideas as to how a conversation should
proceed, and interpret the conversation on the basis of their contextual knowledge about the speaker
and the situation. All of these factors demand well-developed listening skills. A teacher can assist their
students to hone their listening skills through pre-listening and while-listening activities.

Example:

Ask the class questions about a topic, but do NOT record their responses. Then read a passage which
relates to the same topic. Ask them the same questions again. Afterward, initiate a discussion as to the
effectiveness of the pre-listening questions: did they help the listener focus more quickly? Why or why
not?

Selective Listening
Selective listening skills can be developed by giving students things to listen for. The objective would be
to increase the students’ awareness of what they hear and understand without metalinguistic input. A
relevant exercise would be to have the students to listen to any number of the following oral activities,
and respond to a series of prepared questions. The students might need to do some of these listening
activities before class.

engage in conversation with someone

listen to ad on TV or radio

listen to folktales

listen to directions

understand radio news

teach and encourage prediction

use advertisement materials

Other Listening Activities

a. Simon Says

b. True-False: each student has a card – on one side of the card the word ‘yes’ is written, on the flip side
‘no’ (in the target language, of course); students hold up the appropriate card in response to the
teacher's questions. This exercise can also be done using hand signals instead: thumbs up or down, or
using one’s left or right hand to indicate yes or no.

c. Sound identification game: students make a consonant or vowel fan, which is a series of paper strips
with one letter or combination of letters at the end of each paper. The teacher points to a picture of a
word and the students use the fan to indicate which letter the word begins with.

d. Three Card game: Each student receives three cards with words or pictures written/drawn on them;
for example, card #1 may say south, card #2 may say Friday, and #3 may say Spring. The teacher asks
oral questions and the students hold up the appropriate card in response. For example, the teacher says
‘I want the card that is the name of a season’.

Speaking is found on the tree as one of the branches; it is labeled oral production and is one of the skills students are to learn in their lan
development. The ability to converse is highly valued by students, but teachers often find it a skill that is hard to develop. Students ofte
deal of anxiety around speaking. In this section we will discuss the importance of developing excellent oral skills and how teachers can
promoting this development.
Why is speaking important?

The goal of language is communication and the aim of speaking in a language context is to promote communicative
efficiency; teachers want students to actually be able to use the language as correctly as possible and with a purpose.
Students often value speaking more than the other skills of reading, writing and listening so motivation is not always
as big of an issue, but what often happens is students feel more anxiety related to their oral production.  As speaking
is interrelated with the other skills, its development results in the development of the others. One of the primary
benefits of increased communicative competency is the resulting job, education and travel opportunities; it is always
an asset to be able to communicate with other people.

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What should teacher know when planning speaking activities?

In planning speaking activities, teachers need to decide whether students need high structure (for example drills and
controlled practice) for practice in learning or Getting It or low structure (for example role plays, simulations)
for Using It. Questions to consider in relation to speaking include the following:

 Is it necessary to review the language to be used in a task?

 Will the learners work in pairs or small groups?
 How will learners be monitored as they complete task?
 How will teachers provide feedback to students?

When developing activities, lessons or tasks around speaking, teachers should also be aware of the 3 areas of
knowledge that speaking encompasses. Each area should receive attention, though not necessarily all at once. It is
advisable to inform the students of these areas, so they are aware of the purpose of the activities.

 Mechanics: This area involves the different pieces that make up speaking including pronunciation, vocab,
grammar and word order.
 Functions: This area describes the uses of speaking whether for transaction or interaction, and when precise
understanding is or is not required.
 Social/Cultural rules and norms: This area involves the more sublte cultural value inherent in the
language’s culture, such as turn taking, social norms, roles of participants, etiquette and social register etc.

Taken from http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/speaking/spindex.htm

When creating activities that focus on student speaking, teachers can create activities relative to different types
output and their purposes:

 Structured output focuses on using a correct form, usually something specific that has been worked on in
class. The purpose it to develop comfort with certain forms/structures
 Communicative output focuses less on form and more on the completion of a task that includes using
specific language. The purpose is for the students to get their meaning across; accuracy not as big of a
consideration.
Taken from http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/speaking/goalsspeak.htm
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How are some tips for promoting speaking in the SL classroom?

When assisting students in the development of their oral skills, there are some tips and techniques that teachers can
use to minimize students’ anxiety and to make the development as efficient and practical as possible. This way,
students will learn more and have increased motivation to continue this skill development.

 Create authentic practice activities that as similar to real-life as possible

 Create different contexts in which students can practice in order to broaden their vocabulary and
experiential horizons
 Provide scaffolding and support for each context; this means making sure students are aware of the
appropriate vocabulary and what social or cultural norms are appropriate
 Don’t focus solely on errors; correct as much as each student can handle, more advanced students can often
handle more correction, but avoid excessive correction if it will promote anxiety
 Be aware of Higgs, what students at different levels can focus on
 Give students options to use when responding to questions and teach them those options; allow them to use
minimal responses if it reduces anxiety but make sure all students are aware of the possibilities. This allows
for differentiation, as students can use the level of response that they feel comfortable with
 Develop routines involving certain scripts (ie greetings, compliments, asking certain questions) so students
become comfortable and familiar with those scripts
 Use gestures to help get meaning across and encourage students to do the same; emphasize that what is
important is the meaning.
 Make it fun!

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Writing

On the tree linking theory and practice, writing is labeled written production and is one of the branches; when
learning a second language, it is a skill that students must develop. When expressing oneself in a language, this is
only done in an oral fashion; written communication is extremely important in language learning. For many
students, writing is a less stressful activity then speaking as the audience for any mistakes is more selective; on the
other hand, written work is concrete and is therefore open to closer examination and correction. Teachers must
develop the students’ sense of self-efficacy related to their writing skills; this section will discuss the importance of
writing skills and how they can be developed.

 
Why should writing skills be developed?

Writing is an integral and necessary skill when learning a second language as communication is not only done
orally. Writing is necessary if a person is looking to study or work in a particular country. Writing also results in
increased practice using the language. Connections can be made between the four key skills in learning a language:
reading, writing, listening and speaking. These skills do not exist independently, they are interrelated; improving one
will result in improvements in the others. Writing is a manner for students to practice their language skills in a way
that promotes noticing; as they write their texts, they are forced to notice certain grammar and vocabulary structures
and reflect on why those are used and not others.

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How can the teacher prepare the students to write?

Before engaging in a writing task, students need to know the purpose of writing and be introduced to important
language features and key vocabulary. Teachers can create their own activities or follow the model of a text; a text
can be constructed on the board or overhead as a whole class activity with the learners contributing the language.
This will enable teachers to identify and explain language features that are problematic and model the editing
process for learners.

Before asking a students to complete a written task, there are some things a teacher can do to prepare them:

 Be clear about the skills being developed (ie verb tense, structures, forms etc.)
 Involve students as personally as possible as this increases motivation
 Discuss with the students the different skills involved in the writing process such as conceptualizing,
planning, composing, revising etc.
 Remember that according to Krashen, increased reading equals better writing

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What should the writing process look like in an SL context?

Having modeled the writing process, teachers should give learners the time to prepare for and draft their text. Group
or pair work is a useful way to help learners prepare for writing as they can share ideas and rehearse some
expressions they intend to use. Encourage them to edit and revise, paying particular attention to language features
highlighted earlier. In every language class, the teacher plays a great role in making the writing tasks as achievable
and productive as possible:
  Make the written tasks a frequent occurrence to reduce anxiety around them
 Make the tasks meaningful to students personally and in general
 Give appropriate teacher feedback and give the students a chance to revise their drafts as this promotes self-
correction and noticing). Feedback should focus on improving the students’ work, not correction for
correction’s sake
 Give the students time to reflect on the writing process (what worked, what didn’t, what was enjoyable,
etc.)
 Don’t always grade the tasks; students should not be writing solely for credit
 Establish real-life situations to engage the students (ie set up an email pen pal system between another
school, etc.)

Writing occurs in three phases. Teachers should be aware of these phases, and inform the students of them.
Activities can be structured around these phases to show students just how different the process of each phase is.

 Prewriting: generation of ideas, discussion of purpose/format etc., use of organizational skills, emphasis
placed not on structure rather content ideas
 Composing: creation of outline, writing, selection of specifics (tense, style, etc.), restructuring
 Revision: revision of style/grammar/structure, check for consistency/errors/clarity/support of arguments