T HE Q UANTUM H ARMONIC

O SCILLATOR

The problem of time and beyond

PAOLA CONTRERAS S. - PABLO CONTEREAS S. - ÁLVARO ITURBE J.

SOFÍA LÓPEZ DE LA MANZANARA P. - ADRIÁN MARÍN B .

RAÚL MUÑOZ R . - NEY NUÑEZ F.

RAFAEL JERÓNIMO A .
University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

Contents
1 Deduction of equations 2
1.1 Schrödinger’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Dirac’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Schrödinger equation for stationary states of energy 6

3 Hamiltonian of the quantum harmonic oscillator, definition of the new operators 7

4 Deduction of the number operator 8

5 Eigenvalues of H in terms of the new operators 9

6 Obtaining the eigenvalues of the H in terms of the new operators. General expression for
the different eigenvalues 10

7 Wave function for the ground state. Case for excited states using new defined operators 11

8 Normalization constant, General algebraic solution using Hermite polynomials. Hermite

Differential Equation 13

9 A closer look at the Klein-Gordon’s equation 15

10 Is time fundamental or emergent? 16

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

Abstract
This project is focused around the quantum harmonic oscillator, for which certain equations of great
relevance for physics will be deduced. Starting from the Schrodinger equation, through which we can
explain the collapse of an observed particle wave, we will present two postulates of different fields of
mathematics that define the same phenomena.

The Klein Gordon equation was originally proposed by Schrodinger in an attempt to unify quantum
ideas with Einstein’s special theory of relativity. Due to some incongruences, the Dirac equation was for-
mulated to counteract them.

With these concepts it is possible to define concepts as diverse as antiparticles and different spins. In
order to illustrate in a practical example all these questions we will use the quantum harmonic oscillator,
one of the few quantum mechanical systems that admits a simple analytical solution.

Introduction
Just as the simple harmonic motion is the protagonist in most of the motions related to physics, its analogue,
the quantum harmonic oscillator is also of great utility, since it allows us to separate almost unsolvable
systems of quantum mechanics into small systems whose solutions are those of the quantum harmonic os-
cillator.
The form of the frequency for both oscillators is the same, however, one of the most striking differences is
that in the quantum case the particles never reach an equilibrium state. That is, they are never at rest, even
at absolute zero temperature, since we cannot specify the position or their velocity. Moreover, the energy of
the quantum oscillator is limited to certain values, unlike the classical oscillator which has no restrictions.

1 Deduction of equations
1.1 Schrödinger’s Equation
Starting from the wave-particle duality, we can understand that each corpuscle has a wave function associated
with it, which represents its probability amplitude, 𝜓.
The Schrödinger equation can be summarized as:
𝐻̂ Ψ̇ = 𝐸Ψ (1)
where: 𝐻̂ is the Hamiltonian operator, related to the total energy of the system (kinetic and potential),

ℏ 2
𝐻̂ = − ∇} + 𝑉 (2)
2𝑚
𝐸 is the energy of the system ∇ is the laplacian.
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇= + + (3)
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2 𝜕𝑧2
Our deduction will start from the wave equation which, considering a single spacial dimension, is:
𝑖 ̇
𝑒 ℏ (𝑃 𝑥−𝐸𝑡) ≡ Ψ (4)
Deriving with respect to time and space,
𝜕Ψ −𝑖
= 𝐸Ψ (5)
𝜕𝑡 ℏ

𝜕Ψ 𝑖
= 𝑃Ψ (6)
𝜕𝑥 ℏ
Next, lets convert our classical magnitudes into operators:
- Energy operator: this is the Hamiltonian operator as defined earlier but, for convenience, we will rewrite
it as :
𝜕
𝐻̂ ≡ 𝐸̂ = 𝑖ℏ (7)
𝜕𝑡

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-Linear momentum operator:

𝜕
𝑃̂ = −𝑖ℏ (8)
𝜕𝑥
Clearing 5, we obtain:
𝜕
𝑖ℏ ̂
Ψ = 𝐸𝜓 (9)
𝜕𝑡
Being 𝐸,
̂ as well, the total energy contribution of the system (kinetic and potential energy).

𝐸̂ = 𝑉̂ + 𝑇̂ (10)
where:

- 𝑉̂ is the potential energy operator

- 𝑇̂ is the kinetic energy operator

Considering that the classical kinetic energy is expressed as 𝑇 = 21 𝑚𝑣2 (m is the mass, v the velocity), and
𝑃2
that it can be written as a function of the linear momentum as 𝑇 = 2𝑚
, rewriting the kinetic energy as an
operator in terms of the momentum operator, we have that:

𝑃̂ 2
𝑇̂ = (11)
2𝑚
squaring 8, we obtain

𝜕2
𝑝̂2 = −ℏ2 (12)
𝜕𝑥2
then, the kinetic energy operator is,
ℏ2 𝜕 2
𝑇̂ = (13)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
Thus, substituting in 9 the energy operator (sum of kinetic and potential energy), we have that the general
time-dependent Schrödinger equation is,

𝜕 ℏ2 𝜕 2
Ψ = (𝑉̂ −
𝑖ℏ )Ψ (14)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
The most accepted interpretation of the meaning of the collapse of the wave function is given by the
Copenhagen interpretation, which postulates that when the particle is observed, the wave function collapses.
On the other hand, the square of the wave function is taken as the amplitude of the probability of finding the
particle at a given point in space.

1.2 Dirac’s equation

Let’s start with some historical context.

To explain the phenomena of the subatomic world, two theories based on two very different fields of
mathematics appeared almost at the same time. On the one hand, matrix mechanics (Heisenberg’s) and
Schrodinger’s wave mechanics.

In 1926, Schrodinger wrote the famous equation that we just proved, on which are the basis of what we
know today as quantum wave mechanics. His work pleased many physicists because it helped to explain
many of the unknowns of the early days of quantum theory. The thing they liked the most was precisely the
ease of understanding the underlying mathematics.
Six months earlier, Heisengberg had published the very first paper of what we now call Quantum Mechanics.
But, unlike Schrodinger’s undulatory mechanics, Heisenberg used a much stranger tool: the matrix calculus.

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

And this is the reason why we will demonstrate Dirac’s equation, since it proves that both formulations
are equivalent, unifying them with special relativity in a quantum relativistic equation.

To do this, we must first derive the Klein-Gordon equation:

Klein-Gordon’s equation
2
While in classical mechanics we define the kinetic energy as 𝐸 = 𝑃2𝑚 , in special relativity the total energy
of the system is defined as 𝐸 2 = +𝑚2 𝐶 4 . Because of this, we define the new quantum operators as:

𝑋̂ = 𝑋
𝜕
𝐸̂ = 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡
𝑃̂ = −𝑖ℏ 𝜕 𝜕𝑥

Table 1: Operadores Cuánticos

⎧𝐸 2 = 𝜂 2 + 𝑚2
⎪
⎨(−𝑖ℏ∇) 𝜓 = 𝑃̂ 𝜓
2
⎪(𝑖 𝜕 )2 𝜓) = 𝐸 2 𝜓
⎩ 𝜕𝑡
If we rearrange the terms of the system of equations, we obtain the Klein-Gordon equation.

𝜕2
(𝑖ℏ 𝜓) = [𝑚2 𝑐 4 + 𝑐(−𝑖ℏ∇)
̄ 2 ]𝜓 (15)
𝜕𝑡
This equation describes a free scalar field in the Quantum Field Theory, successfully describing pions and
particles of spin 0 (such as bosons). However, it does not describe spin 1/2 particles (such as fermions, elec-
trons...), and presents two solutions (because it is squared), one of them being of negative energy (causing
the probability of finding the particle to be negative).

To solve it, Dirac decides to linearize it, starting from the Klein-Gordon one and demanding:

𝛼̄ ′ = 𝑐𝑡𝑒
𝛽 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒
𝛼̄ + 𝛽 ′ 𝛼̄ ′ = 0
′

𝛼𝑖′ 𝛼𝑗′ + 𝛼𝑗′ 𝛼𝑖′ = 2𝑐 2 𝑖𝑗

𝛽 ′2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 4

which are the Pauli’s matrices, the irreducible representation of the SU(2), algebra group (consequence of
applying the relativistic properties to the quantum) With what:
𝜕𝜓
𝑖ℏ = (−𝑖ℏ𝛼̄ ′ ∇
̄ + 𝛽 ′ )𝜓 (16)
𝜕𝑡
However, considering 𝛼̄ ′ and 𝛽 constant, the equation has no solution. Consequently, Dirac proposed to
consider it as matrices of dimension 2 such that:

𝛽 ′ = 𝑚𝑐 2 𝛾 0
𝛼 ′ = 𝑐 𝛼̄

( )
0 𝜎̄
𝛼̄ =
𝜎̄ 0

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( )
0 𝜎̄
𝛾̄ =
−𝜎̄ 0
Rewriting, the equation (16):
𝜕𝜓
𝑖ℏ = (𝑚𝑐 2 𝛾 0 − 𝑖ℏ𝑐 𝛼̄ ∇)𝜓
̄ (17)
𝜕𝑡
Through the properties of relativity,

𝛾𝑜 𝜕 𝑚𝑐
𝑖( ̄
+ 𝛾̄ ∇)Ψ = Ψ (18)
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 ℏ
thus arriving at the Dirac’s equation:
𝑚𝑐
// −
(𝑖∇ )Ψ = 0 (19)
ℏ
which can be rewritten as:
(𝑖𝜕/ − 𝑚)𝜓 = 0 (20)

The Dirac equation has 2 solutions, and the negative one can be interpreted as for particles with properties
analogous to those of the standard model, but of opposite electric charge (Dirac sea): the antiparticles.

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2 Schrödinger equation for stationary states of energy

Let’s consider the Schrödinger equation of a conservative system, a particle of mass m, without spinning,
( ) ⃗𝑝2 + 𝑉 (⃗𝑟), which means:
with linear moment 𝑝⃖⃗ and 𝑉 ⃗𝑟 ≠ 𝑉 (𝑡), such that 𝐻 = 2𝑚
( ) [ 2 ]
𝜕Ψ ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 ( ) ℏ 2 ( ) ( )
𝑖ℏ = 𝐻𝛹 ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 = − ∇ + 𝑉 ⃗𝑟 Ψ ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 (21)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚
( ) ( )
The equation allows only one solution by separation of variables, Ψ ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 = 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 𝜏 (𝑡). Therefore:
( ) [ 2 ]
𝜕𝜓 ⃗𝑟 𝜏 (𝑡) ( ) ℏ 2 ( ) ( ) ( )
𝑖ℏ = 𝐻𝑜𝑝 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 𝜏 (𝑡) = − ∇ 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 + 𝑉 ⃗𝑟 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 𝜏 (𝑡) (22)
𝜕 (𝑡) 2𝑚
Since 𝜓 does not depend on t, then the equation can be rewritten as follows:
[ 2 ]
( ) 𝑑𝜏 (𝑡) ℏ 2 ( ) ( ) ( )
𝑖ℏ𝜓 ⃗𝑟 = − ∇ 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 + 𝑉 ⃗𝑟 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 𝜏 (𝑡) (23)
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚
( )
Now, the 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 term is passed to the right side of the equality, and the 𝜏 (𝑡) term to the left side.
[ 2 ]
1 𝑑𝜏 (𝑡) ℏ 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) 1
𝑖ℏ = − ∇ 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 + 𝑉 ⃗𝑟 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 ( ) =𝐸 (24)
𝜏 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝜓 ⃗𝑟
Where E is a constant of separation, with energy units. With this, the following equations are obtained:
𝑖𝐸
1 𝑑𝜏(𝑡)
• 𝑖ℏ 𝜏(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐸, whose solution is of the form 𝜏 (𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒− ℏ
[ 2 ( ) ( ) ( )] [ 2 ( ) ( ) ( )] ( )
1
• − 2𝑚 ∇2 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 + 𝑉 ⃗𝑟 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 ( ) = 𝐸, or what is the same, − 2𝑚 ∇2 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 + 𝑉 ⃗𝑟 𝜓 ⃗𝑟 = 𝐸𝜓 ⃗𝑟 .
𝜓 ⃗𝑟
( ) ( )
This last equation of eigenvectors 𝐻𝜓 ⃗𝑟 = 𝐸𝜓 ⃗𝑟 , is called The Schrödinger equation of stationary states
of energy, or Time-independent Schrödinger equation.

Therefore, the solutions will be of the form:

( ) 𝑖𝐸𝑡 ( )
Ψ ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒− ℏ 𝜓𝐸 ⃗𝑟 (25)
called stationary states of
( energy.
) They( are)eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian operator, corresponding
to the eigenvalues E, 𝐻Ψ𝐸 ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 = 𝐸Ψ𝐸 ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 (in a conservative system, they are the solution to the fol-
( )
𝜕Ψ ⃗𝑟;𝑡 ( ) 𝜕 ( ) ( )
lowing equation: 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡 = 𝐻𝑜𝑝 Ψ ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 ), and they also verify 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡 Ψ𝐸 ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 = 𝐸Ψ𝐸 ⃗𝑟; 𝑡 , so they are
eigenfunctions of the energy operator, with eigenvalue E.

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

3 Hamiltonian of the quantum harmonic oscillator, definition of the

new operators
We begin with the mathematical expression for the Hamiltonian 𝐻:
̂

2 2 ̂2
̂ = 𝑝̂ + 𝑚𝑤 𝑥
𝐻 (26)
2𝑚 2
√
With 𝑤 = 𝑘∕𝑚.

It is easy to notice that we are dealing with two terms squared, and so by making use of imaginary num-
bers, we can factorize the expression in the form 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = (𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏).
Now, we are going to factorize both operators 𝑝̂ and 𝑥 ̂ with the help of other two operators that we are going
to call 𝑎̃ and 𝑎̃† (known as the dagger of 𝑎̃); being 𝑎̃ = 𝛼̂
𝑥 + 𝑖𝛽 𝑝̂, and 𝑎̃† = 𝛼̂
𝑥 − 𝑖𝛽 𝑝̂, with both 𝛼 and 𝛽 being
real numbers.
And so, by multiplying 𝑎̃† 𝑎̃ we get:

𝑎̃† 𝑎̃ = 𝛼 2 𝑥
̂2 + 𝛽 2 𝑝̂2 + 𝑖𝛼𝛽(̂
𝑥𝑝̂ − 𝑝̂𝑥
̂) (27)

𝑚𝜔2 1
Being 𝛼 2 = 2
and 𝛽 2 = 2𝑚
, we then get the following expression.

√ √
𝑚𝜔2 1
† ̂
𝑎̃ 𝑎̃ = 𝐻 + 𝑖 ⋅ [𝑥,
̂ 𝑝]
̂ (28)
2 2𝑚
√
𝑚𝜔2
But, as the commutator of 𝑥̂ and 𝑝,
̂ we know that [𝑥, ̂ = 𝑖ℏ. And so, 𝐻̂ = 𝑎̃† 𝑎̃ + ℏ𝜔
̂ 𝑝] , and 𝑎
̃ = 𝑥̂ +
√ 2 2
1
𝑖 2𝑚 𝑝.̂ Now, in order to factorize ℏ𝜔, we define 𝑎,
̂ which does not have any units, in such a way that:
√ √
√ 𝑚𝜔2 1
𝑎̃ = ℏ𝜔 ⋅ 𝑎̂ = 𝑥̂ + 𝑖 𝑝̂ (29)
2 2𝑚

Consequently, if we solve for 𝑎̂ we obtain the following expressions for 𝑎̂ and 𝑎̂† :
√ [ ] √ [ ]
𝑚𝜔 𝑖 𝑚𝜔 𝑖
𝑎̂ = 𝑥̂ + 𝑝̂ †
𝑎̂ = 𝑥̂ − 𝑝̂ (30)
2ℏ 𝑚𝜔 2ℏ 𝑚𝜔

To finally reach the following expression of the Hamiltonian

1
𝐻 = ℏ𝜔[𝑎† 𝑎 + ] (31)
2

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4 Deduction of the number operator

First of all, we define the number operator, which is:

𝑁̂ = 𝑎̂† 𝑎̂ (32)
With this definition we obtain the next one for the Hamiltonian:
1
𝐻̂ = ℏ𝜔(𝑁̂ + ) (33)
2
Because of the Hamiltonian (𝐻) ̂ is a linear function of the number operator (𝑁)
̂ they will have common
states; they can be diagonalized at the same time, that is if one is eigenstates in function of 𝐻,
̂ it will be
eigenstates in function of 𝑁.
̂ Now we look for a common base where both of our operators are diagonal,
considering the base where 𝑁̂ is also
diagonal. Being |𝑛⟩ the states of 𝑁,
̂ they are linearly independent, obeying the condition of:

𝐻̂ |𝑛⟩ = 𝑛 |𝑛⟩ (34)

Now we apply the Hamiltonian to the 𝑛 state and we obtain:
1
𝐻̂ = ℏ𝜔(𝑛 + ) |𝑛⟩ (35)
2
We can write the eigenvalues of 𝐻̂ with the next expression:
1
𝐸𝑛 = (𝑛 + )ℏ𝜔 (36)
2
We need to find who are those 𝑛. Due to that we study the effect of 𝑎̂ and 𝑎̂† in |𝑛⟩. First of all, we
observe that the operator 𝑎 commute. Those operators have names, 𝑎̂ is the descent operator and 𝑎̂† is the
ascent operator:
[ ] [ ]
[𝑁, 𝑎] = 𝑎† 𝑎, 𝑎 = 𝑎† [𝑎, 𝑎] + 𝑎 𝑎† , 𝑎 (37)
In the previous expression we
[ know] that [𝑎, 𝑎] = 0 because the commutation of an operator with himself
is 0. We only have to calculate 𝑎† , 𝑎 , using also that [𝑥, ̂ = 𝑖ℏ and [𝑝,
̂ 𝑝] ̂ = −𝑖ℏ.
̂ 𝑥]

[ ] 𝑚𝜔 𝑖𝑝̂ 𝑖𝑝̂ 𝑚𝜔 𝑖 𝑖 𝑚𝜔 −ℏ ℏ
𝑎† , 𝑎 = (𝑥̂ − , 𝑥̂ + )= ( (𝑥, ̂ −
̂ 𝑝) (𝑝, ̂ =
̂ 𝑥)) ( − ) = −1 (38)
2ℏ 𝑚𝜔 𝑚𝜔 2ℏ 𝑚𝜔 𝑚𝜔 2ℏ 𝑚𝜔 𝑚𝜔
As a result:
[ ] [ ]
[𝑁, 𝑎] = 𝑎† 𝑎, 𝑎 = 𝑎† [𝑎, 𝑎] + 𝑎 𝑎† , 𝑎 = −𝑎 (39)
If we use a similar process, we obtain the next result:
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
𝑁, 𝑎† = 𝑎† 𝑎, 𝑎† = 𝑎† 𝑎, 𝑎† + 𝑎 𝑎† , 𝑎† = 𝑎† (40)

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5 Eigenvalues of H in terms of the new operators

According to the definition of the new operator N we had introduced above, we can commute N with “a”
and ”𝑎† ”:

[𝑁, 𝑎] = [𝑎† 𝑎, 𝑎] = 𝑎† [𝑎, 𝑎] + [𝑎† , 𝑎]𝑎 = −𝑎 (41)

[𝑁, 𝑎† ] = [𝑎† 𝑎, 𝑎† ] = 𝑎† [𝑎, 𝑎† ] + [𝑎† , 𝑎† ] = 𝑎† (42)

The Hamilton operator can be expressed as:
( )
1
𝐻̂ = ℏ𝜔 𝑁 + (43)
2
This way, the eigenstates of N and energy are the same.
If we apply “𝑁𝑎† ” over “n” we get:
( )
𝑁𝑎† 𝑛 = [𝑁, 𝑎† ] + 𝑎† 𝑁 𝑛 (44)
Equation 43 can be proved by the definition of N:
[𝑁, 𝑎† ] = 𝑁𝑎† − 𝑎† 𝑁 ⟹ 𝑁𝑎† = [𝑁, 𝑎† ] + 𝑎† 𝑁
( )
𝑁𝑎† 𝑛 = 𝑎† 𝑁 + 𝑎† 𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑎† 𝑛 (45)
The equation 45 tells us that the ket 𝑎† 𝑛 is also an eigenvector of N, with eigenvalue 𝑛 + 1. This implies
that 𝑛 + 1 is proportional to 𝑎† 𝑛.

Similarly, we can arrive to the expression:

𝑁𝑎𝑛 = (𝑎𝑁 + [𝑁, 𝑎]) 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎) 𝑛 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑎† 𝑛 (46)
Now, the main question is: what do the factors 𝑛 + 1 in equation 45 and 𝑛 − 1 in equation 46 mean,
respectively?

The hoped answer is that “𝑎† ” acts on “𝑛” to produce 𝑛 + 1, while “a” acts on “𝑛” to produce “𝑛 − 1”.
That is the reason why “𝑎† ” is called a creation operator and “𝑎” is called a annihilation operator.

Now, let’s take into account the proportionality relation between 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑛 − 1:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐𝑛 − 1
where c is a constant.
If we suppose that 𝑛 − 1 is normalised, we arrive to:
𝑛𝑎† 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑁𝑛 = 𝑛 = ‖𝑐‖2 (47)
If 𝑐 ∈ 𝐑+ , we reach: √
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 − 1 (48)

Furthermore, we can also study the constant’s behaviour for the proportionality relation between 𝑎† 𝑛
and 𝑛 + 1. Let’s call the new constant c’:
𝑎† 𝑛 = 𝑐 ′ 𝑛 + 1
Supposing that 𝑛 + 1 is normalised, we arrive to an expression which is counterpart to equation 47:
( )
𝑛𝑎𝑎† 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑎† 𝑎 + [𝑎, 𝑎† ] 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑁 + 1𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑐 ′2 (49)
Then, from equation 49, we arrive to:
√
𝑎† 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1𝑛 + 1 (50)

This is how a and 𝑎† behave over the eigenstates of the number operator.

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

6 Obtaining the eigenvalues of the H in terms of the new operators.

General expression for the different eigenvalues
Before the next step we should remark that, as

𝑛 = ⟨𝑛| 𝑁̂ |𝑛⟩ = ⟨𝑛| 𝑎† 𝑎 |𝑛⟩ (51)

is a norm, it is bigger or equal to ∅. Therefore:

𝑛≥∅ (52)

Having it in mind, we consecutively apply 𝑎̂

√
𝑎 |𝑛⟩ = 𝑛 |𝑛 − 1⟩ (53)
√ √
𝑎2 |𝑛⟩ = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 |𝑛 − 2⟩ (54)
√ √ √
𝑎3 |𝑛⟩ = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝑛 − 2 |𝑛 − 3⟩ (55)
⋮
As 𝑎 |𝑛⟩ ≥ 0, with this reccurrence, n must be Natural, in order to be truncated at a certain point and to
never be of negative value.
𝑎 |0⟩ = 0 |0⟩ = ||∅⟩ ⇔ 𝑛𝜖ℕ (56)
The state |0⟩ , (𝑛 = 0), is the ground state, that has the lowest energy:

Although this is the minimum energy level that the oscillator can reach, it will never be zero. A simple
explanation of this phenomenon is due to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, which states that it is impos-
sible to know two variables (either position and momentum or energy and time) at the same time.
So if the energy were zero, it would violate this principle, since the position and its momentum could then
be known at the same instant.

𝐸𝑛 = ℏ𝜔(𝑛 + 1∕2) (57)

From here, we can obtain the other states
†
√
|1⟩ = 𝑎 |0⟩ = 0 + 1 |0 + 1⟩ = |1⟩ (58)
( )
⎡ † 2⎤
𝑎
†
⎢ 𝑎 ⎥
|2⟩ = √ |1⟩ = ⎢ √ ⎥ |0⟩ (59)
2 ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
( )
⎡ † 3⎤
𝑎
†
⎢ 𝑎 ⎥
|3⟩ = √ |2⟩ = ⎢ √ √ ⎥ |0⟩ (60)
3 ⎢ 3 2⎥
⎣ ⎦
This way, we finally obtain
( )
⎡ † 𝑛⎤
⎢ 𝑎 ⎥
|𝑛⟩ = ⎢ √ ⎥ |0⟩ (61)
⎢ 𝑛! ⎥
⎣ ⎦
which is the general expresion for the different eigenvalues.

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

7 Wave function for the ground state. Case for excited states using
new defined operators
The representation in space of the ground state (by which we mean its function), will be obtained on the
basis of the descent operator, which applied to the zero ket, should be the null ket:

𝑎 |0⟩ = ||∅⟩ (62)

Therefore, if we apply (62) to 𝑥′ , the equation is:
√ ( )
⟨ ′ ⟨ ′ 𝑚𝜔 𝑖𝑃̂
|
𝑥 | 𝑎 |0⟩ = 𝑥 | | 𝑥̂ + |0⟩ = ∅ (63)
2ℏ 𝑚𝜔
Applying the identity properties of 𝑥′′ , which are:
⟩ ⟨ ′′
|𝑥′′ 𝑥 || 𝑑𝑥 = 1 (64)
∫ |
, we can get to the expression:
⟨ ′ ( 𝑖𝑃
) ⟩⟨
𝑥 || 𝑥 + |𝑥′′ 𝑥′′ | 𝑑𝑥′′ |0⟩ = ∅
| | (65)
𝑚𝜔 ∫
√
Keeping in mind that the constant 𝑚𝜔 2ℏ
could be eliminated because (63) is equal to 0. If we now apply
the product by kets, and the distributive property, we obtain:
(⟨ ⟩ ) ( )
𝑖 ⟨ ′ | ̂ | ′′ ⟩
𝑥′ || 𝑥̂ ||𝑥′′ + 𝑥 | 𝑃 |𝑥 𝜑0 𝑥′′ 𝑑𝑥′′ = ∅ (66)
∫ 𝑚𝜔
We must now remember that a quantum operator is the one that represents a physical quantity in the
formalism of quantum mechanics. They arise because in quantum mechanics, nature is described as a wave
function and not as discrete particles.
In this case, 𝑥̂ (position) and 𝑃̂ (linear moment), are position and moment operators respectively, whose
action is diagonal over the position basis. Therefore, the integral is rewritten as:
( ( ) ( 𝑖 )( ( ) 𝑑 )) ( ′′ ) ′′
𝑥′′ 𝛿 𝑥′ − 𝑥′′ + −𝑖ℏ𝛿 𝑥′ − 𝑥′′ 𝜑0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∅ (67)
∫ 𝑚𝜔 𝑑𝑥′′
We will eliminate the integral with the letter delta, arriving to the following differential equation:
( ) ℏ 𝑑 ( )
𝑥′ 𝜑0 𝑥′ + ′
𝜑0 𝑥′ = ∅ (68)
𝑚𝜔 𝑑𝑥
Since the terms of the equation are adding up, we can solve the equation as:
ℏ 𝑑 ( ) ( )
𝜑 𝑥′ = −𝑥′ 𝜑0 𝑥′ (69)
𝑚𝜔 𝑑𝑥′ 0
We integrate and we finally get:
𝑑 𝑥
𝜑 (𝑥) = − 𝜑0 (𝑥) (70)
𝑑𝑥 0 𝛼2 0
ℏ
Where 𝛼02 = 𝑚𝜔 .
Now, it is easy to see that the value of 𝜑0 is the following one:
( )2
− 21 𝛼𝑥
𝜑0 = 𝑐𝑒 0 (71)
, because if we substitute this expression on the left side of the equality, we get the right side. Let´s
check:
[ ( )2 ] ( )2 [ ( )2 ] ( )2
𝑑 𝑑 − 12 𝛼𝑥 − 21 𝛼𝑥 𝑑 1 𝑥 2 𝑥 − 12 𝛼𝑥0
𝜑 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑒 0 = 𝑐𝑒 0 − =− 𝑐𝑒 =
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝛼0 2 𝛼2
0

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

( )2
𝑥 −1 𝑥
𝑥
= −𝑐 𝑒 2 𝛼0
= −𝑐 𝜑0 (𝑥) (72)
𝛼02 𝛼02
Therefore, the equality 70 is verified, being right the expression for 𝜑0 and c, constants to be determined
by normalization.
Then, according to the calculations we have made so far, we get the following result.
( )2
− 12 𝛼𝑥
⟨𝑥| 0⟩ = 𝑐𝑒 0

Being this the solution for 0, which is the ground state.

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

8 Normalization constant, General algebraic solution using Hermite

polynomials. Hermite Differential Equation
We had previously deduced that our function has the following expression in its ground-state:
( )2
− 21 𝛼𝑥
𝜑0 (𝑥) = ⟨𝑥|0⟩ = 𝐶𝑒 0 (73)
√
ℏ
with 𝛼0 = 𝑚𝑤
This expression for the wave function includes a normalization constant 𝐶 which can be used to turn
said function into one that expresses probability density, in a way that the total probability is 1. Using this
condition, the constant can be computed as:
+∞ [ ( )2 ]
[ ] +∞ √
| | − 𝛼𝑥 | |
1= 𝜑0 (𝑥) ⋅ 𝜑∗0 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = |𝐶 2 | 𝑒 0 𝑑𝑥 = |𝐶 2 | ⋅ 𝛼02 𝜋 (74)
∫ | | ∫−∞ | |
−∞
If 𝐶 ∈ ℝ, its final expression is:
( )1∕4
1 𝑚𝑤
𝐶= 1
= (75)
1
2
𝜋ℏ
𝜋 𝛼0
4

In which deduction we used:

− 12 ( 𝛼𝑥 )2
𝜑∗0 (𝑥) = 𝐶𝑒 0 (76)
Once the normalization constant is obtained, we rewrite the equation ??
( )2
1 − 12 𝛼𝑥
𝜑0 (𝑥) = ⟨𝑥|0⟩ = 1
𝑒 0 (77)
1
𝜋 4 𝛼02

Given the final derived expression for the ground-state, we can easily compute the expression for the
following eigenvalues using the previously defined ladder operators:
⟨ ⟩
| |
⟨𝑥|1⟩ = 𝑥 |𝑎† | 0 (78)
| |
⟨ | | ⟩
| (𝑎† )2 |
|
⟨𝑥|2⟩ = 𝑥 | √ || 0 (79)
| 2 |
| |
⋮

⟨ | | ⟩
| (𝑎† )𝑛 |
⟨𝑥|𝑛⟩ = 𝑥 || √ || 0 (80)
| 𝑛 |
| |
In this process the great utility of the ladder operators is made present. Starting from a ground-state wave
function it is possible to obtain the expression for excited states (superior eigenstates of energy) applying
the creation operator (𝑎† ). We can descend in the different energy levels applying the inverse method with
the annihilation operator (𝑎) instead.

The role of these is remarkable in Quantum Mechanics, specially in the study of many-particle systems.
√
𝑎† |𝜑𝑛 ⟩ = 𝑛 + 1|𝜑𝑛+1 ⟩ (81)

√
𝑎|𝜑𝑛 ⟩ = 𝑛|𝜑𝑛−1 ⟩ (82)
Finally, it is possible to obtain the general expression of the wave function that acts as a solution of the
first equation proposed (73):

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

( )1∕4 [ ] 21 [ ] − 1 ( 𝑥 )2 [ ][ ] − 1 ( 𝑥 )2
𝑚𝑤 1 2 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝜑𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝛼 𝛼02 𝑥 − 𝑒 2 𝛼0 = 𝐶 𝑛 𝛼02 𝛼02 𝑥 − 𝑒 2 𝛼0 (83)
𝜋ℏ 2𝑛 𝑛! 0 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑛! 𝑑𝑥
The family of polynomials which appears between the normalization constant and the exponential func-
tion receives the name of Hermite Polynomials, and they constitute the solution of the so called second
order Hermite Differential Equation, writen as:

𝑥′′ 𝑦 − 2𝑥′ + 2𝑛𝑦 = 0 (84)

Using the definition of these polynomials, we can write the general expression for the wave function in
a more compact form:
( )2
− 12 𝛼𝑥
𝜑𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐶𝐻𝑛 𝑒 0 (85)
Introducing this expression in the original equation proposed (73), we deduce that the total energy of the
oscillator cannot take any value, but only certain ones. This result is known as the quantization of energy
and, in the case of the Quantum Harmonic Oscillator, the energy values are quantized in the form:
( )
1
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 + ℏ𝑤 (86)
2
With n∈ ℕ

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

9 A closer look at the Klein-Gordon’s equation

The Klein-Gordon’s equation was originally proposed by Schrödinger in order to apply the wave equation
to a relativistic particle in a try to unify the quantum ideas with the Einstein’s special relativity.

Most of the problems which made this try fail came of dealing with the variable Φ(𝑥, 𝑡) as a wave
equation coming through the probabilistic interpretation, which comes with some internal incoherences;
for example, as the wave is not positive definite, the square of the module cannot be interpreted as a proba-
bility, which makes it not worthy to be used a way to describe relativistic particles from quantum mechanics.

Some issues had been resolved, as that the problem that this wave function make that energy is not lower
bounded. That gave particles instability, but, after some research, it was resolved by the interpretation that
particles with negative energy were antiparticles.

However, it still presents a variety of limits as not have in mind adequately spins, having problems for
example when it takes values of ½ as in electrons.

Despite failing on the initial objective, it had a great success describing particles with spin zero.

The Klein-Gordon’s equation is obtained directly from the relativistic equation for energy and momen-
tum. Using the expression:
𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚 2 𝑐 4 (87)
and following the Schrödinger’s ideas, considering
𝜕
𝐸⟶𝑖 , 𝑝 ⟶ −𝑖∇ (88)
𝜕𝑡
Substituting the second equation (88) into the first one, and applying it over a field Φ(𝑥, 𝑡) , we obtain
one differential equation of the form:

1 𝜕2 𝑚2 𝑐 2
( − ∇2 + )Φ(𝑥, 𝑡) = 0 (89)
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡2 ℏ2
We have considered Φ(𝑥, 𝑡) as a field and not as a wave function, in order to avoid the majority of the
previously said problems. This is not a problem in the quantum field theory, where the main object is not
the wave function, but the proper state of space-time. By them the value can be negative as now it is the
value of the field and not a probability.
We can rewrite this equation in function of development coefficients (𝑎† ) and (𝑎). Applying the La-
grangian (90) (from the minimum action principle) for the real field (neutral particles)

1 1
𝐿= 𝜕 Φ𝜕 𝜇 Φ∗ − 𝜇2 Φ∗ Φ (90)
2 𝜇 2
the equation is then rewritten as:

𝑑3𝑝 1 −𝑖 −𝑖 −𝑖 −𝑖
Φ(𝑥, 𝑡) = √ (𝑎𝑒 ℏ 𝐸𝑡 𝑒 ℏ 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑎† 𝑒 ℏ 𝐸𝑡 𝑒 ℏ 𝑝𝑥 ) (91)
∫ (2𝜋)3 2𝐸
𝑝

Here, applying the operators’ formalism, (𝑎† ) and (𝑎) are converted into creation and destruction operators
respectively. Those are formally similar to which ones had been intervening in the quantum harmonic os-
cillator. Is there when it is manifested that the field can be interpreted as a set of infinite quantum harmonic
oscillators unplugged.

This is extremely useful in quantum field theory to describe, as we said before, neutral particles with spin
zero, as pions or bosons, as the Higgs’ one. The particles with spin ½ are dealt with the Dirac’s equation.

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

10 Is time fundamental or emergent?

General Relativity perspective

From a classical general relativity point of view, space-time is is the medium used to describe any macro-
scopic phenomena.
In this way, space-time tissue gets perfectly defined by a 4-dimensional LorentzVariety. This conjugate
would seem to underlie all physics causalities and not to be a byproduct of them, nevertheless, it acts in a
very different way from classical mechanics, given that it’s not an absolute background with perfectly fixed
parameters but rather a dynamic system. The fact that it interacts with other properties as mass, energy
and even with itself can led to the possibility of it being a product of a given physics casualties, thus being
emergent and not fundamental.
What is the point of view of space-time in modern Quantum Physics?

Quantum Physics perspective

Surprisingly, in quantum mechanics time is seen as an external concept that acts in an absolute way,
much as in the classical physics. This is contrary to the character of space-time described in general rel-
ativity and one of the many aspects in which both theories differ. Now-a-days, there are two fundamental
theories that try to reunite both, and as one can imagine, this discrepancy in time character also appears
in them. Speciffcally, we are going to talk about the Quantum-Gravity theories inspiration and how this
problematic concept is treated.

Quantum Gravity Theory perspective - Timelessness in physics

The first emergent quantum-gravity theories and even the later ones were inspired by the publication of
one speciffic expression, the Wheeler-deWitt Equation (refered hereinafter as wdw equation for simplicity).
It is fundamentally a result of applying the Schrödinger Equation to the hypothethic wave function of the
entire universe (Though we can no longer talk about this equation being applied to a 3d wave but rather to
a field of all possible configurations of space time), being a functional differential equation whose solution
is a wave function defined in 3 dimensional space that does not depend in time.
In this deterministic equation, the geometry of the universe seems to be perfectly defined without the inclu-
sion of time, which is a surprising result.

Furthermore, applying momentum constraints to the wdw equation it’s posible to obtain the Schrödinger
equation, that appears in this way to be a particular case of the first and not the other way around. This issue
has established the question of whether the WDW equation is more fundamental than Schrödingers’. As a
result of these characteristics, added to the timelessness of the equation itself, some scientist talk about the
’physics without time’ and the issue about if it is even fundamental or just an emergent process.

Of course, the wdw equation is not substained by any experimental research data and it can be pretty
much an incorrect way of formulating a quantum gravity theory as far as we know, but the problem it de-
scribed continues to be relevant in the new models of quantum gravity. The questioning about whether time
is fundamental or relative is known as the Time Problem.

Thermodynamics perspective

Most classical physics laws involving time have one peculiarity, its reversibility. That is, we could intro-
duce a negative time instead of the positive one stablished by convention, and they would be as valid as they
were before. However, when we drop a glass of water to the floor and it shatters into a hundred pieces, we
don´t see those fragments rearrange to form said glass, process that would be possible in terms of energy
exchange.

One concept, entropy, precent this weird event to happen. The second law of thermodynamics stablishes
that any enclosed system evolves to the highest possible entropy state available. As a result, we could say
that the oly thing that separates future from past (in a casual-relation way) is entropy, thus giving the universe

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

a clear direction to evolve.

We can talk about the "thermodynamic arrow of time". There exists other arrows of time such as the
cosmological and the psychological one, but most of them are a byproduct of the one mentioned.

Is worth to be mentioned that we can talk about the universe evolving to a higher state of entropy because
it´s considered that the universe, in its origin, had its lowest entropy, thus representing this moment the point
of comparison we use.

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University of Granada The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator

References
[1] COHEN-TANNOUDJI, C, D IU, B,& L ALOË, F. Quantum mechanics, volume 1: Basic concepts, tools,
and applications. John Wiley & Sons. (2019)
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[3] W IKIPEDIA, THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA Ladder operator method (2004, June 3)
[4] Bra Ket Notation | Quantum Mechanics. (2017, 6 noviembre). YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xdSTZYc8uRg
[5] Bra-Ket Operators | Quantum Mechanics. (2017, 13 noviembre). YouTube.
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[6] Quantum Chemistry 3.2 - Operators. (2016, 14 agosto). YouTube.
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[7] Quantum Chemistry 3.3 - Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions. (2016, 14 agosto). YouTube.
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[8] Eldestein, J. D. & Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. (2011, March). Tema IV: Operadores lin-
eales. Departamento de Física de Partículas, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Retrieved De-
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[9] Colaboradores de Wikipedia. (2020, May 6). Operador (mecánica cuántica). Wikipedia, la enciclopedia
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[10] Operators in Quantum Mechanics. (2008, January 19). HyperPhysics. Retrieved December 24, 2021,
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[13] Segunda cuantización. (2019, 11 octubre). Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre.
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[15] Carlo Rovelli, "¿Y si el tiempo no existiera?"

[16] Brian Green, "El tejido del cosmos"

[17] Carlo Rovelli, "El orden del tiempo"
[18] Stephen Hawking, "Los sueños de los que está hecha la materia"
[19] Roger Penrose, "El camino a la realidad: Una guía completa a las leyes del universo"

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