ARTICLE IN PRESS

Ann Anat 189 (2007) 261—267

www.elsevier.de/aanat

The three-dimensional architecture of the human

styloglossus especially its posterior muscle bundles
Hiroshi Saito, Ichizoh Itoh

Department of Morphological Biology, Division of Oral Anatomy, Ohu University School of Dentistry, 31-1 Misumido,
Tomita-cho, Koriyama, Fukushima 963-8611, Japan

Received 3 August 2006; accepted 25 October 2006

KEYWORDS Summary
Tongue;
The arrangement of the lingual muscles in the interior of the human tongue,
Human;
particularly the course of the posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus, was
Gross anatomy;
studied by gross anatomical examination and SEM, and its relationship with tongue
SEM;
functions was considered. The styloglossus divided into anterior and posterior fiber
Styloglossus muscle
bundles. The bilateral anterior fiber bundles ran anteriorly, and fused at the median
region of the lower surface of the tongue, forming a large arched structure. The
posterior bundles divided into 10 or more smaller bundles and entered the interior of
the tongue. These muscle bundles passed through the spaces between the inferior
longitudinal and genioglossus and inserted in the lingual septum, forming a small
arched structure. These posterior muscle bundles passed near the midpoint between
the central third and dorsal third of the line between the mental spine and the dorsal
surface of the tongue in the upper half of the root of the tongue, showing a multi-
layer structure. In many of the areas in which posterior muscle bundles were
distributed, muscle bundles in the tongue were arranged along the posterior muscle
bundles of the styloglossus, glossopharyngeal bundles of the superior pharyngeal
constrictor muscle, and transverse muscle of the tongue from the deep layer to the
dorsal surface of the tongue.
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Introduction
Among the muscles of the tongue, the styloglos-
sus is known to originate at the styloid process,
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: h-saito@den.ohu-u.ac.jp (H. Saito).
enter the tongue from the lateral side, and run
anteriorly (Abd-El-Malek, 1939; Pernkopf, 1960;
Doran, 1975; Barnwell, 1976). However, in a small
number of reports, the styloglossus is described to
be divided into anterior and posterior bundles
(Dabelow, 1951; Hesse, 1975). Dabelow (1951)
presented a drawing in which muscle bundles

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doi:10.1016/j.aanat.2006.10.002
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
262
originating from the styloid process divide into 2
parts, one running anteriorly in the lower part of
the tongue, the other running toward the interior
of the tongue as a muscle layer, and the bilateral
muscle bundles fuse in the median region. Some
other authors reported that muscle bundles of the
styloglossus running toward the interior of the
tongue mixed with or entered the transverse
muscle of the tongue (Barnwell, 1976). However,
this author did not consider that the styloglossus
reaches the lingual septum.
The styloglossus is well known as an important
muscle that pulls the tongue posteriorly and
upward and is considered to play an important role
in swallowing, mastication, and speech (Honda
et al., 1993; Napadow et al., 1999; Hiiemae and
Palmer, 2003). However, to discuss the function of
this muscle, its course and positional relationships
with other lingual muscles must be clarified. In the
studies to date, the course of the styloglossus was
examined by light microscopes, gross anatomy
playing a secondary role. As Barnwell (1977)
observed that separation or tracing of muscle fibers
was difficult at the junction of the intrinsic and
extrinsic muscles of the tongue, the relationships of
the styloglossus with other muscles of the tongue
remained obscure.
This study was performed to obtain hints as to
the functions of the styloglossus muscle by clarify-
ing the course and distribution of the entire muscle
by SEM and gross anatomical examination, particu-
larly with regard to the controversial presence or
absence of the posterior muscle bundles and the
positional relationships of the muscle with other
muscles of the tongue.
Materials and methods
Twenty-three adult bodies (age 51–85 years)
donated for anatomy classes were used. The tongue
was excised with the soft palate and pharynx, the
lingual mucosa was removed with forceps, and the
superficial layer of muscle fibers under the mucosa
was exposed. The anterior muscle bundles of the
styloglossus were exposed by removing the mucosa
on the lower surface of the tongue. The posterior
muscle bundles of the styloglossus were studied by
2 methods. By one method, they were grossly
dissected under a stereomicroscope using forceps
to obtain a complete picture of the styloglossus.
First, the tongue cut sagittally about 5 mm lateral
to the median line and the genioglossus, which
spreads radially from the mental process, and was
then exposed. In this sagittal section, the tongue
H. Saito, I. Itoh
was cut along a plane that was parallel to the
genioglossus and crossed the styloglossus and the
palatoglossus. Next, the styloglossus was dissected
medially from this cross-section under stereoscopic
microscopy. The genioglossus, transverse muscle of
the tongue, vertical muscle of the tongue, and
longitudinal muscles of the tongue were dissected
simultaneously. The styloglossus was dissected
serially from its upper to lower margins by
repeatedly dissecting and detaching its bundles in
the interior of the tongue with the adjacent muscle
bundles, and the positions and shapes of the muscle
bundles were recorded. In part of the samples,
the posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus
were examined by SEM. Specimens for SEM were
prepared by alkali maceration (Takahashi-Iwanaga
and Fujita, 1986; Saito and Itoh, 2003). Namely, a
tongue preserved in 70% alcohol solution in water
for at least 1 year was cut into sections parallel to
the genioglossus at a thickness of about 3 mm, and
the sections were re-fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde
for 24–48 h. Then, they were macerated with a 6 N
NaOH solution at 60 1C for 20 min, and connective
tissue fibers were digested. The specimens were
stained with tannic acid and osmic acid by the
electric conduction method (Murakami, 1974), and
freeze-dried in a stream of butyl alcohol. After
drying, the remnants of connective tissues were
removed with forceps, and the specimens were
examined under the scanning electron microscope
(Hitachi S3500N).
Results
When the lingual mucosa was removed, it was
seen that the styloglossus entered the tongue
posteriorly to the curved part of the tongue near
the lateral margin of the terminal sulcus of the
tongue. It ran anteriorly on the lateral side of the
hyoglossus, and its superficial muscle bundles
(anterior muscle bundles) were in contact with
the inferior longitudinal muscle of the tongue
beyond the anterior margin of the hyoglossus
(Fig. 1, Arrow 1). These anterior muscle bundles
advanced anteriorly and medially toward the
tongue apex while covering the surface of the
inferior longitudinal muscle. After turning around
the anterior margin of the genioglossus, the
bilateral anterior muscle bundles fused in the
median region on the lower surface of the tongue
(Fig. 1, Arrow 2).
In the lateral view of the tongue, the styloglossus
entered the tongue immediately below the pala-
toglossus at the lateral margin of the terminal
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Human styloglossus muscle 263

Figures 1–4. 1. Course of the anterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus. A view of the human tongue from an oblique
inferior direction. Part of the mucosa of the lower surface of the tongue and the genioglossus muscle (GG) have been
removed. The styloglossus muscle (SG) is located laterally, and the inferior longitudinal muscle (IL) is located medially,
to the hyoglossus muscle (HG). Arrow 1: junction between the anterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus (a) and the
inferior longitudinal muscle (IL). Arrow 2: the bilateral anterior muscle bundles joining in the median region on the
lower surface of the tongue. Ap: the tongue apex. : Marks left after the removal of the hyoid bone. D: dorsal surface
of the root of the tongue. 2. Muscles on the lateral sides of the human tongue. Part of the lingual mucosa is removed.
Cross-sections of the styloglossus fibers entering the tongue from posteriorly are observed (SG), and part of the
posterior muscle bundles (p) that divided from the styloglossus is observed immediately below. Lines A and B on the
styloglossus are the positions of the cross-sections shown in Fig. 4. a: anterior fiber bundle of the styloglossus. GG:
genioglossus. GH: geniohyoid. IL: inferior longitudinal muscle. PG: palatoglossus. SHL: stylohyoid ligament. SC: superior
constrictor muscle. 3. Anterior (a) and posterior (p) muscle bundles of the styloglossus. The hyoglossus (HG) was cut
horizontally in the middle, and the lower half of its muscle bundles was removed. The styloglossus was cut short to show
its entry into the spaces among muscle bundles of the hyoglossus (arrows). 4. (A, B) A cross-section of the upper part of
the root of the tongue in which the styloglossus (SG) was cut along the anterior muscle bundles. The position where the
muscle was cut is shown as A and B in Fig. 2. (A) is the middle of the belly of the styloglossus, and (B) is between the
styloglossus and palatoglossus muscle (PG). The frames in the figure are the areas shown in Figs. 5 and 6. HG:
hyoglossus. LT: lingual tonsil.

sulcus of the tongue (Fig. 2, SG). This site
corresponded to the curved part of the tongue,
which divides the dorsum of the tongue into the
horizontal and vertical parts. After entering the
tongue, the styloglossus immediately extended
muscle bundles that ran toward the interior of
the tongue (posterior muscle bundles) posteriorly
to the muscle bundles of the hyoglossus muscle
(Fig. 2, p). While cutting the styloglossus covering
the hyoglossus, the posterior muscle bundles were
dissected where they entered the hyoglossus
(Fig. 3, p). The posterior muscle bundles divided
into 10–20 bundles while covering the external
surface of the hyoglossus, were transformed into
flat muscle bundles (Fig. 3, p), and entered the
spaces among muscle bundles of the hyoglossus
(Fig. 3, arrows). This part was excised by cutting it
parallel to the anterior muscle bundles of the
styloglossus (Fig. 4) and examined by SEM (Figs. 5
and 6). In this cross-section, the muscle bundles of
the styloglossus were clearly divided into 2 parts,
namely the anterior muscle bundles running on
the lateral aspect of the hyoglossus (Fig. 5, a) and
the posterior muscle bundles extending toward the
medial part of the tongue through the gaps among
muscle bundles of the hyoglossus (Fig. 5, p). The
posterior muscle bundles passed through the spaces
in the hyoglossus as flat muscle bundles. After
these muscle bundles had passed through the
hyoglossus, they spread in the anteroposterior
direction, crossed the muscle bundles of the
inferior longitudinal muscle, and advanced medi-
ally (Fig. 6, p2).
When the hyoglossus, into which the posterior
muscle bundles entered, was removed from the
lateral view of the tongue, it became apparent that
the posterior muscle bundles divided further into
several bundles and crossed the muscle bundles of
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264
Figures 5 and 6. 5. An SEM image of the area shown in
Fig. 4A. Connective tissues have been digested. The
hyoglossus muscle (HG) appears as elliptical cross-
sections. The posterior bundles of the styloglossus (p)
cross the anterior muscle bundles (a) and advance toward
the center of the tongue. 6. An SEM image of the area
shown in Fig. 4B. Connective tissues have been digested.
The posterior muscle bundles (p) of the styloglossus (SG)
flatten and pass through (p1) the hyoglossus muscle (HG)
and spread anteroposteriorly in the interior of the tongue
(p2). Part of the muscle bundles were removed to show
that the posterior muscle bundles (p2) and the inferior
longitudinal muscle (IL) are arranged alternately. LT:
lingual tonsil. PG: palatoglossus muscle.
the inferior longitudinal muscle (Fig. 7, arrow-
heads). The curved part of the tongue was cut
parallel to the genioglossus on the lateral side of
the tongue (Fig. 7, #9; Fig. 8, #10), and the
posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus were
dissected from this cross-section. The posterior
muscle bundles passed through the muscle layers of
the lateral inferior longitudinal muscle and medial
genioglossus and reached the lingual septum (Figs.
9 and 10, p). The position where the posterior
muscle bundles inserted to the lingual septum was
close to the midpoint between the central third and
H. Saito, I. Itoh
dorsal third of the line between the mental spine
and the dorsal surface of the tongue. The posterior
muscle bundles curved with mild anterior convexity
from the lateral aspect of the tongue, where they
entered the tongue, to their insertion at the lingual
septum (Figs. 9 and 10, p). Also, the position of the
insertion of the muscle bundles at the lingual
septum (Fig. 7, arrow 2) was lower than the
position of their entry in the lateral aspect of the
tongue (Fig. 7, arrow 1). Thus, the posterior muscle
bundles mildly curved inferiorly as well as ante-
riorly. Muscle bundles of the vertical muscle of the
tongue often crossed the posterior muscle bundles
at the lateral margin of the tongue (Fig. 9, V).
The posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus
were serially exposed and removed from their
upper end to the lower end. The posterior muscle
bundles crossed the genioglossus and inferior long-
itudinal muscle of the tongue and were layered
vertically in the interior of the tongue (Fig. 9,
arrows). The lower ends of the posterior muscle
bundles were distributed to about 12 of the height of
the root of the tongue (Fig. 8, arrow). Also,
glossopharyngeal muscle bundles of the superior
pharyngeal constrictor muscle were often located
posteriorly to the posterior muscle bundles, i.e., on
the dorsal side of the root of the tongue (Fig. 10,
CPS). Moreover, the transverse muscle of the
tongue, which connected the lingual mucosa and
the lingual septum, was observed immediately
below the lingual mucosa on the dorsal side of
these muscle bundles (Fig. 10, T). On the basis of
these findings, a three-dimensional (3D) image of
the styloglossus was prepared (Fig. 11). The
anterior muscle bundles ran anteriorly on the
lateral margins of the tongue and formed a large
arch of a single muscle layer reaching the tongue
apex and the median region of the lower surface of
the tongue. On the other hand, the posterior
muscle bundles formed a small arch as many thin
muscle layers inserted to the lingual septum. The
posterior muscle bundles were distributed widely
from the junction between the body and root of the
tongue to the upper half of the root (Fig. 11).
Discussion
This study revealed (1) the positional relation-
ships of the styloglossus to other muscles of the
tongue, (2) a small arched structure formed by the
posterior muscle bundles of the bilateral styloglos-
sus, running in deep layers of the tongue and insert
to the lingual septum, and (3) a wide distribution of
the posterior muscle bundles, which are layered
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Human styloglossus muscle 265

Figures 7–10. 7. A cross-section of the curved part of the tongue and posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus
located in a deep area of the tongue. A cross-section (#9) parallel to the genioglossus (GG) and a sagittal section (ss)
perpendicular to the cross-section are shown. The arrowheads show the posterior muscle bundles that divide and enter
the inferior longitudinal muscle (IL). The stumps of the muscle bundles removed from the cross-section are observed on
the deepest surface of the superior longitudinal muscle (1) and the surface of the lingual septum (2). The position at
which the posterior muscle bundles enter the tongue (arrow 1) is higher than the position at which they insert at the
lingual septum (arrow 2). D: dorsal surface of the tongue. HB: hyoid bone. LS: lingual septum. SG: styloglossus muscle.
SHL: stylohyoid ligament. 8. Posterior muscle bundles in the center of the root of the tongue seen from the lateral side
of the tongue. #9 shows the position of the cross-section shown in Fig. 9, and #10 shows the position of Fig. 10. The
posterior muscle bundles are also distributed to areas below the cross-section (#10). ss: surface of the sagittal section.
9. Positional relationships of the posterior muscle bundles (p) of the styloglossus (SG) with other lingual muscles. The
posterior muscle bundles crossed the inferior longitudinal muscle (IL) in the lateral part and the genioglossus (GG) in the
medial part of the tongue. Part of the posterior muscle bundles are removed to show the lamination of these muscle
layers (arrows). The position of the insertion of the posterior muscle bundles to the lingual septum (2) is near the
midpoint between the central third and dorsal third of the line between the origin of the genioglossus muscle (0) and
the median region of the dorsal surface of the tongue (3). SG: styloglossus. #9: A cross-section parallel to the
genioglossus. 10. Posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus in the center of the root of the tongue and other
transverse muscle bundles. In the root of the tongue, the posterior muscle bundles (p) of the styloglossus (SG),
glossopharyngeal bundles of the superior constrictor muscle (SC), and transverse muscle of the tongue (T) are arranged
anteriorly to posteriorly in this order. GG: genioglossus. IL: inferior longitudinal muscle. LS: lingual septum. #10: A
cross-section parallel to the genioglossus.
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Figure 11. Diagram of the three-dimensional structure
of the human styloglossus muscle (SG). The anterior
muscle bundles (a) run from the lateral surface to the
lower surface of the tongue, and the bilateral bundles
join in the median region on the lower surface of the
tongue to form a large arch consisting of a single muscle
layer. The posterior muscle bundles (p) enter the interior
of the tongue, and the bilateral muscle bundles join via
the lingual septum (LS) to form a small arch consisting of
many thin muscle layers. This arch of posterior muscle
bundles is distributed widely from the curved part of the
tongue to the upper half of the root of the tongue.
from the curved part of the tongue to the upper
half of the root of the tongue.
Many reports and text books to date have shown
only the styloglossus muscle bundles that run
anteriorly (Abd-El-Malek, 1939; Barnwell, 1976;
Pernkopf, 1960). In this study, the bilateral anterior
muscle bundles of the styloglossus were found to
join in the median region on the lower surface of
the tongue and form an arch. This arch of the
anterior muscle bundles has been described to mix
with the surrounding hyoglossus, palatoglossus, and
inferior longitudinal muscles, to spread over the
lower surface of the tongue near the apex, and to
join in the median region (Dabelow, 1951). Thus,
the anterior muscle bundles form an arch consisting
of a single muscle layer by fusing with other
muscles. Since this arch of the anterior muscle
bundles is located only in the superficial layer of
the tongue, it is considered difficult for this arch to
pull the entire tongue including the root upward
and posteriorly alone. Therefore, the arch of the
anterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus is
considered to pull the anterior part of the tongue
upward and posteriorly or, by working unilaterally,
to turn the anterior part of the tongue laterally.
H. Saito, I. Itoh
There have also been reports of the presence of
the posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus.
However, the posterior muscle bundles have been
reported to fuse with the transverse muscle of
the tongue (Salter, 1852), mix with the trans-
verse muscle and appear to closely approximate
midline (Barnwell, 1977), and their true course and
distribution have remained unclear. There have
also been reports that the bilateral posterior
muscle bundles join (Dabelow, 1951; Hesse,
1975), but this observation lacks pictorial evidence.
This study showed that the posterior muscle
bundles do not fuse with the hyoglossus or inferior
longitudinal muscle by gross anatomical examina-
tion and SEM. It also showed that the bilateral
posterior muscle bundles insert to the lingual
septum. The posterior muscle bundles became 10
or more vertically flat bundles on the lateral side
of the hyoglossus, curved, entered the spaces
among hyoglossus bundles, and extended to the
interior of the tongue. Therefore, the hyoglossus
bundles are considered to support the posterior
muscle bundles of the styloglossus, which change
the direction at this site. It was clearly observed
that the posterior muscle bundles became coron-
ally flat muscle layers after they passed through the
gaps among hyoglossus muscle bundles, passed
through layers of the inferior longitudinal muscle
and genioglossus, and inserted to the lingual
septum. This transverse part of the posterior
muscle bundles was found to be located near the
midpoint between the central third and dorsal third
of the line between the mental process and the
dorsal surface of the root of the tongue in a cross-
section parallel to the course of the genioglossus
muscle. In addition, the posterior muscle bundles
were shown to be arranged into many thin arched
layers, which bind to form a thick muscle layer
spreading from the curved part of the tongue to the
upper half of the root of the tongue. Dabelow
(1951) described the posterior muscle bundles as a
swing-like muscle structure connecting the bilat-
eral styloid processes on the basis of his light
microscopic observations. However, he drew them
as a single layer, running perpendicularly to the
tongue axis immediately below the dorsal surface
at the curved part of the tongue. The present
study, however, clarified that the posterior muscle
bundles run in a considerably deep zone from the
dorsal surface of the tongue and that they are
arranged as many thin layers and are distributed
widely from the curved part to the upper half of the
root of the tongue. This position and distribution of
the posterior muscle bundles indicate that the
styloglossus muscle plays a more important role in
pulling the curved part and the upper part of the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
Human styloglossus muscle
root of the tongue upward and posteriorly than has
been considered.
The posterior muscle bundles that run in the
interior of the root of the tongue were shown to
curve slightly inferiorly as well as anteriorly as they
extend from the lateral surface of the root of the
tongue to the lingual septum. Therefore, the
posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus extend
from the two lateral surfaces of the tongue to the
lingual septum by forming many muscle layers
gently curving with anterior and inferior convexity.
This 3D curvature is considered to have prevented
the anatomical description of the posterior muscle
bundles by conventional examination primarily of
tissue sections. Simultaneously, muscle bundles of
the glossopharyngeal part of the superior pharyn-
geal constrictor muscle and transverse muscle of
the tongue were shown to run laterally on the
dorsal side of the posterior muscle bundles. Since
all these muscle bundles run in the same direction,
the posterior muscle bundles of the styloglossus
muscle have not been distinguished from other
transverse muscle bundles in the previous reports.
Although the superior pharyngeal constrictor mus-
cle and transverse muscle of the tongue were
observed at the same site as the posterior muscle
bundles of the styloglossus, they are considered to
have functions different from those of the posterior
muscle bundles, because they insert at different
sites.
The division of the styloglossus into the anterior
and posterior muscle bundles suggests that it has
multiple functions. The anterior part of the tongue
including the tongue apex must perform delicate
movements particularly in phonation. The anterior
part of the tongue is surrounded by the superior
and inferior longitudinal muscles of the tongue,
hyoglossus, and palatoglossus. The anterior muscle
bundles of the styloglossus are considered to
function as a longitudinal muscle with these
muscles and to be involved in the rear traction
and vertical and lateral movements of the tongue
apex. The body and root of the tongue are also
known to show marked morphological changes
during vocalization from X-ray (Ardran and Kemp,
1955) and 3D-MRI (Honda et al., 1993) observations.
According to these observations, the curved part of
the tongue markedly protrudes upward and poster-
iorly during phonation of [a] and [o]. The position
of this protrusion strongly suggests that the poster-
ior muscle bundles of the styloglossus are involved
in this movement.
Humans have a characteristic bending of the
trachea, which causes bending of the tongue. As
suggested in this study, the posterior muscle
267
bundles of the human styloglossus formed an arch
that pulls the curved part of the tongue upward and
posteriorly, so that they may have the role of
maintaining the bending of the tongue. While the
curving of the trachea is useful for speech, it makes
the swallowing movements more complex. The
double arch structure of the styloglossus muscle is
considered to have morphologically developed to
serve the two functions of speech and swallowing.
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