Professional Documents
Culture Documents
High Pressure High Temperature
High Pressure High Temperature
Technologies
Gunnar DeBruijn News reports continually remind us about the fundamentally constructed, stimulated, produced
Craig Skeates cost and availability of energy from fossil fuels and monitored in a manner similar to wells with
Calgary, Alberta, Canada and renewable sources. Despite remarkable less-demanding conditions, the HPHT environ-
growth in renewable-energy technology during ment limits the range of available materials and
Robert Greenaway the past 20 years, it is well accepted by the technologies to exploit these reservoirs.
Southampton, England
scientific and engineering community that the The oil and gas industry has contended with
world’s energy needs will continue to be satisfied elevated temperatures and pressures for years;
David Harrison
Mike Parris primarily by fossil fuels during the next few however, there are no industry-wide standards
Sugar Land, Texas, USA decades. Aggressive exploration and production that define HPHT conditions and the associated
campaigns will be required to meet the interrelationship between temperature and
Simon James coming demand. pressure. In an effort to clarify those definitions,
Clamart, France Finding and producing new hydrocarbon Schlumberger uses guidelines that organize
reserves may be a difficult proposition, often HPHT wells into three categories, selected
Fred Mueller requiring oil and gas producers to contend with according to commonly encountered technology
Corpus Christi, Texas hostile downhole conditions. Although high- thresholds (below).1
pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) wells are
Shantonu Ray
Aberdeen, Scotland
Mark Riding
600
Gatwick, England HPHT-hc
260°C
Lee Temple 500
Ultra-HPHT
Static reservoir temperature, °F
241 MPa
69 MPa
46 Oilfield Review
u i c kl y
s t o oq
e a ct ture.
HCl tempera
r
a t i ve ?
t t h is a l t ern
a
h e r e an
ing use Is t
l
d ril d we
h l
hic shou ll
W id ta
fl
u
e ins e t e
n w anc tha hes
t
Ca veill ent i ve
surquipm survns?
rly
? e ill itio
g er p e 2 0 0 oC w o nd
h an pro BHPT=25K psi
= c
n BH
l iner ctio
n
ll the fu about
Wi n ed
nder
Can we loittgiouns ? co ncerscreenout
these cond I ’mmature
pre
g
d
th p rmal and
m t
u nd er the
C th isolation ses?
s
zonal sical stre
ph y
Autumn 2008 47
HPHT
Ultra-HPHT
HPHT-hc
> HPHT projects around the world. During the past decade the number of HPHT projects has increased significantly; nevertheless, these projects
represent only about 1% of producing reservoirs worldwide. The principal HPHT areas are found in the United States (deepwater Gulf of Mexico and
deep, hot onshore wells), North Sea, Norwegian Sea, Thailand and Indonesia. In addition, thermal-recovery projects to extract heavy oil are located in
Canada, California, Venezuela and eastern Europe.
In this system, HPHT wells begin at 150°C It is important to emphasize that the Accordingly, this time factor has a major impact
[300°F] bottomhole temperature (BHT) or Schlumberger HPHT classification scheme is not on how scientists and engineers approach
69 MPa [10,000 psi] bottomhole pressure (BHP). limited to wells that simultaneously satisfy the product development.
The rationale for this threshold is related to the temperature and pressure criteria. If either Oilfield Review last reviewed the HPHT
behavior of standard elastomeric seals. parameter falls within one of the three HPHT domain in 1998.3 Since then, the number of
Engineers who run downhole equipment in this regions, the well is classified accordingly. Thus, a HPHT projects has grown, and the severity of
environment have found it prudent to replace the low-pressure, shallow steamflood project to operating conditions has steadily increased
seals before reusing the tools. extract heavy oil lies in the HPHT-hc region (above). For example, a recent proprietary
Ultra-HPHT wells exceed the practical because of the high steam temperature. survey by Welling and Company on the direction
operating limit of existing electronics Conversely, reservoirs associated with low- of subsea systems and services reported that 11%
technology—greater than 205°C [400°F] or temperature, high-pressure salt zones in the Gulf of wells to be drilled in the next three to five
138 MPa [20,000 psi]. At present, operating of Mexico fit an HPHT classification because of years are expected to have BHTs exceeding
electronics beyond this temperature requires the high pressure. 177°C [350°F]. In addition, 26% of respondents
installing internal heat sinks or placing the A vital HPHT-well parameter is the length of expect BHPs between 69 and 103 MPa
devices inside a vacuum flask to shield the time that tools, materials and chemical products [10,000 and 15,000 psi], and 5% predict even
electronics from the severe temperatures. must withstand the hostile environment. For higher pressures.
The HPHT-hc classification defines the most example, logging and testing tools, drilling muds Today, scientists and engineers push the
extreme environments—wells with temperatures and stimulation fluids are exposed to HPHT limits of materials science to meet the technical
and pressures greater than 260°C [500°F] or environments for a limited time, but packers, challenges posed by HPHT wells. This article
241 MPa [35,000 psi].2 Such pressure conditions sand screens, reservoir monitoring equipment surveys tools, materials, chemical products and
are unlikely to be seen in the foreseeable future. and cement systems must survive for many operating methods that have been developed for
However, bottomhole temperatures in geothermal years—even beyond the well’s productive life. successful HPHT well construction, stimulation,
and thermal-recovery wells already exceed 260°C. production and surveillance. Case studies
illustrate the application of some solutions.
48 Oilfield Review
Testing and Qualification of HPHT Technologies
HPHT conditions amplify risks that exist in
conventional wells. In HPHT wells, the margin
for error is greatly reduced, and the
consequences of failure may be more costly and
far reaching. Therefore, before field application,
new products and services designed for hostile
environments must be rigorously tested and
qualified to withstand the tougher downhole
conditions.4 This qualification includes
accelerated degradation testing aimed at
calculating ultimate service life without
performing several years of testing. To meet this
need, the industry has built state-of-the-art
facilities that allow engineers to conduct
realistic evaluations (right). Many tests are
performed according to standard industry
methods; however, increasingly severe downhole
conditions are rapidly approaching the limits of
documented testing procedures.5
Laboratory evaluations fall into three principal
categories: fluids, mechanical devices and elec-
tronics. Engineers pump a plethora of fluid
systems into wells throughout their productive
lives. Testing under simulated downhole condi-
tions answers two basic questions. Can the fluid
be prepared and properly placed in the well? Will
the fluid be sufficiently stable to perform its
intended functions? The testing protocol is often
complex, involving rheology, filtration, corrosion
and mechanical-properties evaluations.6
Mechanical devices include seals, screens
and packers, along with rotating and
reciprocating parts such as shafts, pistons, valves > HPHT testing. Special equipment and facilities are required to evaluate fluids, mechanical devices
and pumps. In addition to HPHT exposure, and electronics at realistic downhole conditions. Logging tools and associated electronics can be
qualification testing also includes contact with operated in an HPHT casing simulator (top left ) at temperatures and pressures up to 316°C and
hazards such as mechanical shocks, hydrogen 207 MPa. HPHT consistometers (top center ) can evaluate the thickening and setting behavior of
cement slurries up to 371°C [700°F] and 207 MPa. (Photograph courtesy of Cement Testing Equipment,
sulfide [H2S], carbon dioxide [CO2] and erosive
Inc.) A similar device for measuring the rheological behavior of drilling fluids can operate at 316°C
particle-laden fluids. and 276 MPa [40,000 psi] (top right ). (Photograph courtesy of AMETEK, Inc.) For flow-assurance
Electronic components and sensors, the third measurements, HPHT pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) cells (center ) detect fluid-phase changes
element, are particularly vulnerable to high and bubblepoints at conditions up to 250°C and 172 MPa. For safety, engineers place the equipment in
individual reinforced testing bays (bottom left ) and control it remotely from a central facility (bottom
temperatures. The key challenge involves the
center ). Before shipment to the field, integrated solutions can be tested in the well at the
stability of plastic or composite materials that Schlumberger Sugar Land, Texas facility (bottom right ), rated to 316°C and 241 MPa.
provide modern electronics with structural
integrity and insulation. Electronics manufac-
2. The “hc” term comes from the steepest mountain-grade 5. Organizations governing the testing and qualification of
turers do not perform extensive R&D in the classifications used by the Tour de France bicycle race. oilfield products and services include the American
HPHT domain because the size of the HPHT In the French language, “hc” stands for “hors Petroleum Institute (API), International Organization for
catégorie,” essentially meaning “beyond classification.” Standardization (ISO), NACE International (NACE) and
electronics market is tiny compared to consumer 3. Adamson K, Birch G, Gao E, Hand S, Macdonald C, ASTM International (ASTM).
electronics such as mobile phones. As a result, Mack D and Quadri A: “High-Pressure, High- 6. For more on laboratory testing of fluids:
Temperature Well Construction,” Oilfield Review 10, Dargaud B and Boukhelifa L: “Laboratory Testing,
oilfield-equipment engineers must determine no. 2 (Summer 1998): 36–49. Evaluation and Analysis of Well Cements,” in Nelson EB
the operational time limit of existing electronics Baird T, Fields T, Drummond R, Mathison D, Langseth B, and Guillot D (eds): Well Cementing–2nd Edition.
under simulated downhole conditions. Martin A and Silipigno L: “High-Pressure, High- Houston: Schlumberger (2006): 627–658.
Temperature Well Logging, Perforating and Testing,” Gusler W, Pless M, Maxey J, Grover P, Perez J, Moon J
The availability of sophisticated test facilities, Oilfield Review 10, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 50–67. and Boaz T: “A New Extreme HPHT Viscometer for New
coupled with an intense R&D effort, has resulted 4. Arena M, Dyer S, Bernard LJ, Harrison A, Luckett W, Drilling Fluid Challenges,” paper IADC/SPE 99009,
Rebler T, Srinivasan S, Borland B, Watts R, Lesso B presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Miami,
in the development of new HPHT products and and Warren TM: “Testing Oilfield Technologies for Florida, USA, February 21–23, 2006.
services that span all the stages of well opera- Wellsite Operations,” Oilfield Review 17, no. 4 “Laboratory Techniques for Fracturing-Fluid
(Winter 2005/2006): 58–67. Characterization,” in Economides MJ and Nolte KG (eds):
tions. Several of these advances are highlighted
Reservoir Stimulation. Houston: Schlumberger
in the following sections. Educational Services (1987): C-1–C-3.
Autumn 2008 49
Drilling and Formation Evaluation often improve the rate of drillbit penetration and The electronics are separated and protected
While drilling HPHT wells, engineers frequently allow better control of rheological properties. inside a specially engineered cartridge section.11
encounter overpressured formations, weak zones Formate brines also have low water activity; Unlike sonde sections, cartridges are not pressure-
and reactive shales. In addition, boreholes are consequently, through osmotic effects, they compensated because high pressures would crush
often slim and highly deviated. To maintain well reduce the hydration of formation clays and the electronics inside. During a logging trip,
control, the drilling-fluid hydrostatic pressure promote borehole stability.9 electronic components remain at atmospheric
must be high enough to resist the formation pore Statoil reported success with formate-base pressure inside the cartridge housing, which must
pressure, yet low enough to prevent formation fluids when drilling high-angle HPHT wells in the resist the external pressure. Housing collapse not
fracturing and lost circulation. As a conse- North Sea.10 The wells are in the Kvitebjørn, only would destroy the electronics, but also might
quence, the acceptable fluid-density range is Kristin and Huldra fields, with reservoir pressures distort the tool to an extent that fishing would be
often small, requiring careful control of fluid up to 80.7 MPa [11,700 psi] and temperatures up necessary. Pressure protection is provided by
circulation to avoid pressure surges that exceed to 155°C [311°F]. Long sequences of interbedded titanium-alloy housings.
formation-fracture pressures. To prevent forma- reactive shales are also present. Despite the Leaks at seal surfaces or joints may also lead to
tion damage or borehole collapse, the drilling challenging environment, Statoil experienced no flooding and cartridge destruction. Therefore,
fluid must inhibit clay-mineral swelling. The well-control incidents in all 15 HPHT drilling O-rings are strategically placed along the
drilling fluid must also be chemically stable and operations in those fields during a five-year toolstring to seal connections and internal
noncorrosive under HPHT conditions. period. In addition, control of formation clays and compartments. To avoid catastrophic failure of the
During the past decade, drilling fluids based on drilling cuttings helped maintain a low solids entire toolstring, individual tools are also isolated
formate salts have been displacing conventional concentration, allowing the operator to routinely from each other by pressure-tight bulkheads in a
halide-base fluids in HPHT wells.7 Fluids recycle and reuse the drilling fluid. manner similar to those in a submarine. O-rings
containing halides are highly corrosive to steel at HPHT conditions present abundant chal- for HPHT applications are composed of
elevated temperatures and pose environmental lenges to scientists and engineers who design and fluoropolymeric elastomers. Viton elastomer, the
hazards. Corrosion rates associated with formate operate formation-evaluation tools. As mentioned most common example, is rated to 204°C [400°F].
solutions are low, provided the fluid pH remains in earlier, the most vulnerable tool components are At higher temperatures, the Viton formulation
the alkaline range. For this reason, formate muds seals and electronics. Measurement physics breaks down and loses elasticity. For these
are usually buffered with a carbonate salt. Unlike dictates direct exposure of most logging-tool extreme situations, Schlumberger engineers have
halides, formates are readily biodegradable and sensors to wellbore conditions; thus, they are qualified O-rings fabricated from Chemraz
may be used with confidence in environmentally built into a sonde. Most sonde sections are filled elastomer—an advanced material that is stable to
sensitive areas. with hydraulic oil and incorporate a compen- about 316°C [600°F] but is significantly more
Formates are extremely soluble in water and sating piston that balances the inside and outside expensive than its Viton counterpart.12
can be used to create invert emulsions or solids- pressures to maintain structural integrity and Current electronic systems for HPHT logging
free brines with densities up to 2,370 kg/m3 prevent tool implosion. Current sondes are can operate continuously at temperatures up to
[19.7 lbm/galUS], reducing the need for routinely operated at pressures up to 207 MPa 177°C. The temperature inside the cartridge is a
weighting agents.8 Lower solids concentrations [30,000 psi]. function of the downhole temperature and
internal heat generated by the electronics. When
higher external temperatures are anticipated,
engineers place the tool inside an insulating
33,000 Dewar flask—a vacuum sleeve that delays heat
transmission. Depending upon the duration of
31,000 the logging run, Dewar flasks allow operations at
29,000 temperatures up to 260°C. Recently, extended
run times have become possible with the intro-
27,000 duction of low-power electronics that generate
Maximum TVD, ft
50 Oilfield Review
the lower external surface area of the titanium
housing, the SlimXtreme toolstring can operate
at pressures up to 207 MPa. Telemetry and gamma
ray cartridge Tool limit
Chevron applied SlimXtreme technology in 150
the Gulf of Mexico while logging deepwater
exploratory wells at the Tonga prospect in Green
Temperature, °C
Canyon Block 727. During logging runs to External
100
31,824 ft [9,700 m], the system experienced pres- CNL compensated
sures up to 26,000 psi [180 MPa] and continued neutron log tool
Autumn 2008 51
2.5 15 The EWT was a success, and the Jack 2 well
Conventional cement
sustained a flow rate exceeding 6,000 bbl/d
FlexSTONE HT cement
2.0 [950 m3/d] of crude oil from about 40% of the
2.0 12
well’s net pay. This result led Chevron and its
Well-isolation properties
Linear expansion, % partners to request various sizes of HPHT
1.5 9 perforating systems for additional appraisal wells
nearby and future field developments elsewhere
in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico.16
1.0 6
52 Oilfield Review
Until recently, the well cementing industry [380°F].24 Meeting this goal would require
focused on one mechanical parameter— unusually high drawdown pressures, exerting
unconfined uniaxial compressive strength—to significant mechanical stress on the casing,
qualify a cement design. The longer-term diffi- cement sheath and formation. Using CemSTRESS
culties described above led Schlumberger software, Schlumberger engineers determined Upper tieback
sealbore
scientists to more thoroughly investigate the that placing FlexSTONE HT cement across the
mechanical properties of set cement, along with production zone would provide a gasket-like seal
models governing the mechanical behavior of capable of withstanding the severe environment.
steel pipe and rocks. They adapted the models to After cement placement, the production strings
the geometry of a well and introduced were subjected to pressure tests up to 69 MPa and
CemSTRESS software—an application that drawdown tests exceeding 41 MPa [6,000 psi]. The
analyzes the behavior of a cement sheath exposed cement sheath remained intact. After more than
to anticipated downhole conditions. This software two years of production, there have been no well- Permanent
hold-down slip
analyzes radial and tangential stresses experi- integrity problems.
enced by the cement sheath resulting from Heavy-oil projects involving SAGD wells also
pressure tests, formation-property changes and employ FlexSTONE HT cement extensively. An
Heavy-oil-thermal
temperature fluctuations. Along with compressive eastern European reservoir contained a (HOT) seal
strength, the CemSTRESS algorithms consider particularly thick crude oil—12,000-MPa-s
Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and tensile [12,000-cP] viscosity and a 17°API gravity. Oil
strength and help engineers determine the mining had been the standard recovery method.
appropriate cement mechanical properties for a To reduce production costs, the operator elected
given application.19 to try the SAGD method in a pilot well. This Permanent
hanging slip
CemSTRESS analysis usually indicates that approach presented multiple well-construction
cement sheaths in CSS and SAGD wells should be concerns: 300-m [984-ft] horizontal sections at a
more flexible than in conventional systems. This TVD of 228 m [748 ft], temperatures approaching
can be achieved by using cements with lower 250°C and stresses on the cement sheath
Young’s moduli (previous page).20 In addition, the resulting from thermal production cycles and a
cement sheath should expand slightly after soft formation. FlexSTONE HT cement success- Liner connection
setting to ensure firm contact with the casing fully withstood the production conditions with no
and formation. These requirements led to the loss of zonal isolation, and the operator has
development of FlexSTONE HT high-temperature planned additional SAGD installations. CSS and > Schlumberger high-temperature liner hanger.
flexible cement.21 This cement is part of a family SAGD wells in Canada, Venezuela, Egypt, Developed for steamflood applications, the liner
that combines the engineered particle-size Indonesia and California, USA, have also hanger features seals made from carbon fiber
concept of CemCRETE technology with flexible benefited from FlexSTONE HT cement. and INCONEL alloy. The tool has permanent slips
and a one-piece mandrel to minimize possible
particles that lower the Young’s modulus.22 In CSS and SAGD wells require specialized, high- leak paths and can be rotated while running in
addition, expansion after setting can be performance completion equipment to handle the hole. To date, Schlumberger engineers have
significantly higher than that of conventional the extreme temperature cycles. Common installed more than 150 units in Canada, with no
pressure-test failures. Some of the systems have
cement systems, promoting bonding with the elastomeric seals often fail, allowing pressure and
survived up to 10 thermal cycles to 343°C [649°F].
casing and formation.23 The temperature limit of fluids to escape up the casing, reducing steam-
FlexSTONE HT cement is about 250°C [482°F]. injection efficiency and increasing the potential
An operator in the UK region of the North Sea for casing corrosion. Recently, Schlumberger operating at cycled-steam temperatures up to
had an ambitious goal of producing gas at a engineers began using seals fabricated from a 340°C [644°F] and pressures up to 21 MPa
sustained 6.8-million m3/d [240-MMcf/d] produc- yarn of carbon fibers contained within an [3,000 psi], allowing reliable deployment of
tion rate from three wells with a BHT of 193°C INCONEL alloy jacket. These seals are capable of thermal liner systems (above).
15. Akkurt R, Bowcock M, Davies J, Del Campo C, Hill B, Cañas Triana JA, Hathcock R, Koerner K, Hughes T, Stiles D: “Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Ultrahigh
Joshi S, Kundu D, Kumar S, O’Keefe M, Samir M, Kundu D, López de Cardenas J and West C: Temperature on the Mechanical Parameters of Cement,”
Tarvin J, Weinheber P, Williams S and Zeybek M: “Highlighting Heavy Oil,” Oilfield Review 18, no. 2 paper IADC/SPE 98896, presented at the IADC/SPE
“Focusing on Downhole Fluid Sampling and Analysis,” (Summer 2006): 34–53. Drilling Conference, Miami, Florida, February 21–23, 2006.
Oilfield Review 18, no. 4 (Winter 2006/2007): 4–19. 19. Thiercelin M: “Mechanical Properties of Well Cements,” 22. For more on engineered-particle-size cements:
Betancourt S, Davies T, Kennedy R, Dong C, Elshahawi H, in Nelson EB and Guillot D (eds): Well Cementing–2nd Nelson EB, Drochon B and Michaux M: “Special
Mullins OC, Nighswander J and O’Keefe M: “Advancing Edition. Houston: Schlumberger (2006): 269–288. Cement Systems,” in Nelson EB and Guillot D (eds):
Fluid-Property Measurements,” Oilfield Review 19, no. 3 James S and Boukhelifa L: “Zonal Isolation Modeling Well Cementing–2nd Edition. Houston: Schlumberger
(Autumn 2007): 56–70. and Measurements—Past Myths and Today’s Realities,” (2006): 233–268.
16. Aghar H, Carie M, Elshahawi H, Ricardo Gomez J, paper SPE 101310, presented at the SPE Abu Dhabi 23. Cement systems that expand slightly after setting are a
Saeedi J, Young C, Pinguet B, Swainson K, Takla E and International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, proven means for sealing microannuli and improving
Theuveny B: “The Expanding Scope of Well Testing,” Abu Dhabi, UAE, November 5–8, 2006. primary cementing results. Improved bonding results
Oilfield Review 19, no. 1 (Spring 2007): 44–59. 20. Young’s modulus, also called the modulus of elasticity, is from tightening of the cement sheath against the casing
17. Nelson EB and Barlet-Gouédard V: “Thermal Cements,” the ratio between the stress applied to an object and the and formation.
in Nelson EB and Guillot D (eds): Well Cementing–2nd resulting deformation, or strain. Lower Young’s moduli 24. Palmer IAC: “Jade North Sea HPHT Development:
Edition. Houston: Schlumberger (2006): 319–341. correspond to more flexible materials. Innovative Well Design Generates Best in Class
18. Alboudwarej H, Felix J, Taylor S, Badry R, Bremner C, 21. Abbas R, Cunningham E, Munk T, Bjelland B, Performance,” paper SPE/IADC 92218, presented at
Brough B, Skeates C, Baker A, Palmer D, Pattison K, Chukwueke V, Ferri A, Garrison G, Hollies D, Labat C and the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam,
Beshry M, Krawchuk P, Brown G, Calvo R, Moussa O: “Solutions for Long-Term Zonal Isolation,” February 23–25, 2005.
Oilfield Review 14, no. 3 (Autumn 2002): 16–29.
Autumn 2008 53
Schlumberger high-temperature thermal Reservoir Stimulation and Production Matrix acidizing consists of pumping a low-pH
liner hangers have been used in the Cold Lake Reservoir stimulation encompasses two major fluid through naturally existing channels in the
field, where a major operator in Canada is techniques: matrix acidizing and hydraulic rock, at rates that are sufficiently low to avoid
conducting a horizontal-well CSS program.25 With fracturing. Both procedures bypass formation creating fractures in the formation. The acid
customized liners and carbon-fiber and damage incurred during drilling, cementing and dissolves soluble components of near-wellbore
INCONEL seals at the top of the liner, the perforating, and they also provide an enhanced formation rock and damaging materials
operator has been able to achieve good steam connection between the formation rock and the deposited by previous well-service fluids, thereby
conformance—steam intake spread evenly over wellbore. The goal is to increase hydrocarbon creating a more permeable path for hydrocarbon
the length of the horizontal well—verified by production to levels far exceeding what would be flow. Acidizing fluids are formulated to stimulate
time-lapse seismic surveys over the pilot area. possible under natural-flow conditions.26 carbonate or sandstone formations.
Most carbonate acidizing involves reacting
hydrochloric acid (HCl) with formations com-
posed of calcium carbonate (calcite), calcium
magnesium carbonate (dolomite) or both. As the
acid flows through perforations and dissolves the
carbonate rock, highly conductive channels called
wormholes are created in the formation.
Wormholes radiate from the point of acid injection
and carry virtually all of the fluid flow during
production (left). For efficient stimulation, the
wormhole network should penetrate deeply and
uniformly throughout the producing interval.
HCl is an effective stimulation fluid at low
temperatures, but it can be problematic when used
at temperatures exceeding about 93°C [200°F]. At
higher temperatures, this mineral acid attacks the
formation too rapidly, minimizing the depth and
uniformity of the wormholes. These conditions also
promote excessive tubular corrosion and require
engineers to add high concentrations of toxic
corrosion inhibitors. Recently, Schlumberger
chemists solved these problems by developing
acidizing fluids based on hydroxyethylamino-
carboxylic-acid (HACA) chelating agents. Common
commercial HACA compounds such as tetra-
sodium EDTA and trisodium HEDTA have been
used in the oil field for decades, mainly as scale-
removal agents and scale inhibitors.27
A variety of HACA compounds underwent
laboratory testing at temperatures up to 200°C.
The evaluation consisted mainly of coreflood
tests in limestone and corrosion-rate measure-
ments involving common tubular metals. The
best performer was trisodium HEDTA, buffered
to a pH value of about 4. Less acidic than a
carbonated beverage, this formulation is far less
corrosive than conventional mineral acids, and
very low tubular corrosion rates can be achieved
by adding small amounts of milder, environ-
mentally acceptable corrosion inhibitors. With
its higher pH, trisodium HEDTA reacts more
slowly and creates an extensive, farther-reaching
> Wormholes formed during a laboratory-scale matrix acidizing treatment of
wormhole network rather than a short dominant
a carbonate-formation sample. The length, direction and number of
wormholes depend on the formation reactivity and the rate at which acid
enters the formation. Once formed, the wormholes carry virtually all of the
fluid flow during production.
54 Oilfield Review
one (right). In addition, HEDTA fluid is far more
efficient than HCl at HPHT conditions. A
comparable level of stimulation may be achieved
by pumping less than one-tenth the fluid volume
(below right).28
Hydraulic fracturing involves pumping large
volumes of fluid through perforations and into the
formation at rates and pressures sufficient to not
only create a fracture, but also propagate it far
beyond the near-wellbore region. The final fluid
stage fills the fracture with proppant—silicate,
ceramic or bauxite granules with high sphericity—
leaving a high-permeability conduit between the
producing formation and the wellbore.29
Fracturing-fluid viscosity is a critical param-
eter that governs fracture initiation and
propagation, as well as proppant transport down
the tubulars, through perforations and into the
fracture. At HPHT conditions, sufficient fluid
viscosity is usually achieved by preparing metal- > Acidizing coreflood test with 20% Na3HEDTA. Technicians pumped the acid through a 2.54-cm [1-in.]
crosslinked solutions of guar-base polymers. The diameter, 30.5-cm [12-in.] long limestone core at 177°C [350°F]. The Na3HEDTA solution created
most common metal crosslinkers are boron and numerous wormholes that formed a complex network. The photograph of the core entrance (left )
zirconium.30 However, viscosity attainment alone is shows the formation of many wormholes. The CT-scan sequence (right ) confirms that the wormhole
network extends throughout the core length. The upper-left CT-scan image displays the core
not sufficient to perform a successful HPHT entrance, and subsequent core sections continue from left to right.
fracturing treatment. To minimize friction-
pressure losses as the fluid is pumped downhole,
the crosslinking reactions should be delayed until
1,000
just before the fluid enters the perforations. In
addition, the viscosity should not be unduly
Pore volumes to breakthrough
25. Smith RJ and Perepelecta KR: “Steam Conformance damage. EDTA and HEDTA are acronyms for ethylene- 29. For more on hydraulic fracturing: Economides and Nolte,
Along Horizontal Wells at Cold Lake,” paper SPE/ diaminetetraacetic acid and hydroxyethylenediaminetri- reference 26.
PS-CIM/CHOA 79009, presented at the SPE International acetic acid. 30. Crosslinks are bonds that link one polymer chain to
Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil Symposium and Frenier WW, Fredd CN and Chang F: “Hydroxyamino- another. Boron and zirconium interact with guar-base
International Horizontal Well Technology Conference, carboxylic Acids Produce Superior Formulations for polymers, forming linkages that increase the effective
Calgary, November 4–7, 2002. Matrix Stimulation of Carbonates at High Temperatures,” polymer molecular weight by several orders of
26. For more on reservoir stimulation: Economides MJ and paper SPE 71696, presented at the SPE Annual magnitude and dramatically increase the fluid viscosity.
Nolte KG (eds): Reservoir Stimulation, 3rd Edition. New Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, 31. Screenout occurs when proppant particles bridge the
York City: Wiley, 2003. September 30–October 3, 2001. perforations and block further fluid ingress. This
27. Chelating agents, also known as sequestering agents, 28. Frenier WW, Brady M, Al-Harthy S, Arangath R, condition is accompanied by a sudden treatment-
are compounds used to control undesirable reactions of Chan KS, Flamant N and Samuel M: “Hot Oil and Gas pressure increase. A premature screenout occurs
metal ions (such as Ca, Mg and Fe). For example, they Wells Can Be Stimulated Without Acids,” paper when the fracture volume is insufficient, when less
form chemical complexes that do not precipitate during SPE 86522, presented at the SPE International than the desired amount of proppant is placed in the
acidizing treatments, thereby preventing formation Symposium and Exhibition on Formation Damage fracture, or both.
Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, February 18–20, 2004.
Autumn 2008 55
irreversibly, fluid viscosity will decrease, and the Although less forgiving, zirconate-crosslinked sufficient crosslink control with zirconate fluids
screenout probability will increase (below). fluids have been used almost exclusively in HPHT has remained elusive. The crosslinking reactions
Therefore, it is vital to control the timing and the fracturing treatments, mainly because they are are temperature-sensitive, and predicting circu-
location of crosslinking. thermally more stable than borate fluids. Despite lating temperatures inside tubulars of HPHT
steady advances in fluid design, achieving wells is often difficult.
Chemists solved these problems by com-
bining the best features of borates and
Borate-Crosslinked Fluid
zirconates into one system—ThermaFRAC
1,600
fracturing fluid. The new dual-crosslinker fluid,
based on carboxymethylhydroxypropyl guar
1,400
(CMHPG), features two crosslinking events—an
early low-temperature reaction involving borate,
1,200
and a secondary temperature-activated one
involving zirconate. Borate crosslinking provides
Viscosity at 100 s–1, cP
56 Oilfield Review
The operator approved a ThermaFRAC treat- ThermaFRAC Fluid
ment that addressed the anticipated difficulties. 1,000
The pad volume was unusually large—65% of the
total job—and the CMHPG concentration was 900
Autumn 2008 57
Blackrock, have installed the REDA Hotline550
high-temperature ESP system in steam-injection
wells (left). Rated to operate continuously at up to
288°C [550°F] internal motor temperature, or
218°C [425°F] bottomhole temperature, the
equipment employs high-temperature thermo-
plastic motor-winding insulation and is designed
to compensate for variable expansion and
contraction rates of the different materials in the
pump. Many of these installations have operated
Pump
continuously for more than two years.
Surveillance
Maintenance of an optimal reservoir-
temperature distribution is vital to efficient
heavy-oil production from SAGD or CSS wells;
Intake
therefore, engineers need to acquire real-time
temperature information to make necessary
steam-injection or production-rate adjustments.
For more than a decade, WellWatcher distributed
temperature sensing (DTS) systems have been
Motor
capable of transmitting data to surface by laser
signals that travel through Sensa fiber-optic
cable.35 However, conventional DTS systems do
not function properly in an HPHT environment.
Most optical fibers begin to degrade when
exposed to hydrogen, which occurs naturally in
wellbores. This degradation accelerates at high
temperatures, detrimentally affecting signal
transmission and measurement accuracy. At
temperatures above 200°C, conventional optical
> REDA Hotline550 ESP artificial lift system. The multicomponent toolstring fibers exposed to a hydrogen-pressured environ-
can be used in wells with BHTs up to 218°C (center ). The heart of the system
ment may become unusable within days.
is the centrifugal pump, equipped with silicon- or tungsten-carbide bearings
for durability at extreme temperatures (left ). The number of stages can also Schlumberger and Sensa engineers
be adjusted according to the completion requirements. The pump motor responded by developing WellWatcher BriteBlue
employs metal-to-metal seals to provide a heat-resistant mechanical barrier multimode optical fiber from a material that is
to fluid entry (right ). Cables that transmit power to the motor and data to
more thermally stable and chemically resistant
surface are protected by insulating armor composed of heavy galvanized
steel, stainless steel and corrosion-resistant Monel alloy (inset ). As of to hydrogen (below).36 An improved version,
November 2008, the Hotline550 system is operating in more than 100 WellWatcher Ultra DTS system, is equipped with
Canadian thermal wells.
58 Oilfield Review
Steam injection
Oil rec
overy
> WellWatcher BriteBlue fiber installation in a heavy-oil well. Engineers pump the fiber through a conduit inside a coiled tubing string (inset ) that is hung
from the surface across the producing interval.
Autumn 2008 59
Maximum 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35
Service Domains temperature kpsi kpsi kpsi kpsi kpsi kpsi kpsi kpsi kpsi kpsi kpsi
RSS 150° C
Drilling Formate drilling fluids 155° C
MWD 175° C
LWD 175° C
Petrophysics
Wireline (SlimXtreme platform) 260° C
Drilling and Evaluation
LWD 150° C
Reservoir
Wireline 260° C
LWD 150° C
Geology
Evaluation Wireline 175° C
LWD 150° C
Geophysics
Wireline (SlimXtreme platform) 260° C
DST 215° C
Testing Tubing conveyed perforating 200° C
Quicksilver Probe tool 260° C
Retarder 249° C
Additives
Fluid loss 249° C
Cementing Test 316° C
Evaluation 260° C
FlexSTONE HT cement 250° C
Fluids 230° C
Hydraulic-fracturing monitoring 175° C
Development
Stimulation
HEDTA acidizing fluid 205° C
ThermaFRAC fluid 190° C
Subsurface safety and isolation valves 200° C
Upper Packers 218° C
Flow control 175° C
Screens 175° C
Fluids 150° C
Lower
Completions Tools 175° C
Thermal liner hanger 340° C
Perforating 260° C
Permanent 175° C
Production
Future HPHT Technology Developments reduce drilling risk by enabling better well Extensive operator involvement in equipment
Significant technologies introduced during placement, improved borehole stability and a design and manufacture, as well as chemical-
the past decade are allowing operators to decreased number of required trips. product development, is not typical for standard
confidently address numerous challenges posed Current chemical research involves extending wells; however, operator participation will be
by HPHT projects (above). As HPHT activity the useful range of additives for primary and crucial to the success of future ultra-HPHT and
continues to grow and well conditions become remedial cementing, as well as stimulation HPHT-hc operations. Cooperation between
more severe, more advanced devices and fluids, into the HPHT-hc realm. This work operators and service companies will be vital for
materials will be required. includes developing novel sealants for plugging proper qualification testing, manufacturing,
Engineers are working to translate the and abandoning HPHT wells at the end of their assembly, testing and installation. Schlumberger
advances realized with HPHT wireline logging to useful lives, and ensuring long-term isolation to scientists and engineers are committed to
the MWD/LWD environment. The measurement prevent fluid flow between subterranean zones participating in this cooperative process, helping
systems must not only withstand elevated or to the surface. In addition, research is under- the industry at large advance the technologies
temperature and pressure, but also perform way to develop completion equipment fabricated necessary to meet the world’s growing demand
reliably when exposed to shocks and vibrations from materials with better resistance to for energy. — EBN
associated with drilling operations. The goal is to corrosive fluids and gases.
60 Oilfield Review