Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

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Applied Ocean Research

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Ship hull slamming analysis with smoothed particle hydrodynamics method T

a ⁎,a b a a
H. Cheng , F.R. Ming , P.N. Sun , Y.T. Sui , A-Man Zhang
a
College of Shipbuilding Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin, China
b
School of Marine Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519000, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In the marine and ocean engineering area, the water-entry process is a typical problem of fluid-solid interaction,
Smoothed particle hydrodynamics which involves complex phenomenon such as the large deformation of free surface and considerable structure
Fluid-body interaction movement. In this process, the predicting impact load and summarizing the evolution law of the free surface
Free surface flows deformation have important reference significance for the hull structure design. To address this issue, numerical
Slamming
simulations are carried out using a robust Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) model. The accuracy of the
present SPH model is firstly validated by simulating the water entry of bow-flare section in two and three
dimensions, respectively. Then, we investigate the variation characteristics of impact load and the evolution of
free surface during the entry of the bow-flare ship section with different roll angles ( = 0 20. 3 ). Attention is
focused on the flow separating phenomenon and the spray jet on the free surface. Finally, the water entry of a
three dimensional ship hull is simulated. The velocity and pressure of flow field are analyzed and some con-
clusions are drawn.

1. Introduction theoretical studies, experimental research and numerical study. The

When ships encounter severe sea conditions, they will have a
complex fluid-solid coupling with the free surface [1–7]. During the
interaction between ship hulls and high waves, especially when the hull
is moving forward in the head sea condition, a fierce bow slamming
may happen. In a worse scenario, when the length and height of the
wave encountered by the hull is large enough, the hull would move
above the free surface in a short period, and then fall back into the
water under the force of gravity, that is the bottom slamming. Com-
pared with the bow slamming, the load peak produced by the bottom
slamming is generally larger, and the overall whip movement of the
ship hull will be produced under the action of the huge load, which
poses a great threat to the hull structure and the safety of the crew. In
addition, when the bottom slamming occurs, the free surface is de-
formed due to the impact of the structure, resulting in the flow se-
paration, thus arousing huge waves. For some special ships, such as
multi-hull ships, waves generated by one hull may act on the other hulls
or the joint of the two hulls, resulting in an adverse effect. Generally
speaking, to investigate the water entry of the hull structure, it is im-
portant to focus on the impact load and the flow separation phenom-
enon, and the analysis of their formation mechanism and evolution law
can provide some reference for hull design and manufacture.
In general, the investigation on water impact is composed of
theoretical work on the water-entry problem can be originated from the
study done by Von Karman [8]. Since then, the theoretical research on
the water-entry problem has been evolving [9–13]. However, the the-
oretical research on the water entry of the structure with a complex
shape, especially the water entry of three-dimensional bodies, is still
rarely published. Moreover, in the theoretical research, the analysis of
flow field and free surface evolution during the impact process are still
not enough. In the experimental aspect [14–19], the slamming load and
the local pressure distribution during the water entry of structures can
be obtained effectively. Besides, the characteristics of the flow field can
also be clearly analyzed by using PIV technology, which provides re-
ferences for the theoretical and numerical work.
With the development of computer science and technology, more
and more numerical models are adopted to study the water entry of
structures. In general, these numerical methods can be classified into
mesh-based methods and meshless methods. Compared with the mesh-
based methods, the meshless method has natural advantages in dealing
with the large deformation and fragmentation of the free surface
[20,21]. As a typical meshless numerical method, the Smoothed Par-
ticle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method has been developing quickly and is
improved in terms of stability and accuracy in recent years. The SPH
method can be categorized into explicit weakly-compressible category
(WCSPH) [22–24] and incompressible one (ISPH) [25,26]. The former

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mingfuren@gmail.com (F.R. Ming).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2020.102268
Received 16 December 2019; Received in revised form 2 May 2020; Accepted 19 June 2020
0141-1187/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Cheng, et al. Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

one has been used widely to simulate the problem of water entry of 2. Theoretical background
rigid bodies with a large dearies angle (e.g., wedges) [27–29], where
the effect of air can be ignored. During the numerical simulation, the 2.1. Governing equations
fluid is deemed to be weakly-compressible and the equation of state is
introduced to obtain the pressure information of fluid. Normally, in As a particle-based method, the fundamental idea of the SPH
order to meet the weakly-compressible hypothesis, the artificial sound method is to numerically solve the Navier-Stokes equations to obtain
speed is set to be 10 times the maximum velocity of fluid. Nevertheless, the acceleration of fluid particles and then update the position of par-
good numerical results of water entry problem have been achieved ticles. The SPH model adopted in this paper is established under the
based on the WCSPH model. hypothesis of weak compressibility, that is, the artificial compressibility
However, for slamming of rigid bodies with a small deadrise angle of fluid is taken into account but the Mach number of fluid is lower than
(e.g. plates), the effect of entrapped air cannot be ignored [30]. When 0.1. In addition, the influence of fluid viscosity can be ignored because
dealing with these cases, the classical WCSPH model can lead to in- the structure water entry problem generally occurs in large Reynolds
correct numerical results under the weakly-compressible hypothesis. number. Under the above assumptions, the Navier-Stokes (NS) equa-
One of the primary issues is how to determine the value of the artificial tions [37] adopted in this paper can be simplified to Euler equations
sound speed both of air and water. In the published article, Lind et al. which are:
[31] used the coupled ISPH-WCSPH to deal with the water entry of d
plate where the water is deemed to be incompressible and the air is = ·u
(1)
dt
regarded as compressible (the sound speed is taken to be the physically
accurate value c = 330 m/s). The validity and reliability of the model du 1
= p+g
are well tested by the fact that the numeric calculations give very good dt (2)
agreement with the experimental results. In [32], a Riemann-ALE SPH
where ρ is the density of fluid particles, u is the velocity, g is the
model is adopted to investigate high-speed water impacts of flat plates
gravitational acceleration, p the pressure, and d/dt the derivative of
with small deadrise angles. In this work, a critical discussion about the
parameters with time. In Eq. (1), it is necessary to introduce the state
choice of the speed of sound is provided. Taking into account the jet
equation to establish the relationship between the fluid density and
speed and the water-hammer pressure during impact, the sound speed
pressure. The fluid state equation [38] adopted in this paper is:
of fluid is taken to be 100 times the impact velocity of the flat plate.
Moreover, as particle-based methods are good at simulating fluid p = c02 ( 0) (3)
flows, they are frequently coupled with the other numerical methods to
deal with complex Fluid-Structure interaction (e.g. taking into account where c0 and ρ0 are the reference sound speed and reference density of
the deformation of structures) in recent years [33,34]. In addition, to- fluid. For pure water, the reference density is generally 1000kg/m3, and
tally particle-based FSI (Fluid-Structure Interaction) solvers are also the reference sound speed is 10 times higher than the maximum velo-
developed and applied to simulate the interaction between the fluid city in the flow field. In other words, the fluid Mach number is guar-
flows with elastic structures [35,36]. In general, the water entry of anteed to be lower than 0.1, satisfying the weakly compressible as-
structures is a typical problem of fluid-structure interaction, which in- sumption.
volves complex phenomena such as the large deformation of free sur-
face and so on. By using the SPH method, the whole water entry process 2.2. SPH formulations
can be well simulated. However, most numerical work remains in the
verification stage and their research objects are basically wedge-shaped 2.2.1. Basic equations
bodies. Besides, the analysis of the flow separation phenomenon and In the numerical calculation, fluid particles carry all the fluid in-
the spay jet at the free surface during the water entry process is still formation, such as the fluid pressure, density, velocity and so on.
insufficient, and their law and mechanism remain to be revealed. Therefore, the Euler equation needs to be discretized for calculation.
Thus, in the present paper, a WCSPH model will be adopted to si- The discretization process is based on a so-called kernel approximation.
mulate the ship hull slamming problem, where the deformation of The kernel approximation [22] approximates integral calculation of any
structures and the effect of air are ignored. The shifting algorithm is function and its derivative by using the kernel function. The specific
introduced into the SPH method to avoid the local unphysical void forms are:
phenomenon in numerical calculation. On this basis, according to the f (r0 ) f (r ) W (r0 r , h) dr
experimental settings in the published literature [17], the water entry (4)
of the two-dimensional and three-dimensional bow-flare section is
firstly simulated. The SPH results are compared with the experimental f (r0) f (r ) W (r0 r , h ) dr
data and the BEM results to ensure that the present numerical model (5)
has sufficient accuracy. Then, the water entry of bow-flare section with where h is the smooth length of the particle, W the kernel function, r the
different roll angles is investigated based on the SPH method. The position information of the particle, and Ω refers to the integral range of
slamming load and the evolution of the free surface are given. More- the kernel function. In the present paper, an improved gaussian kernel
over, the flow separation and its formation mechanism are analyzed in function is adopted, see [39]. Based on the above kernel approximation,
detail. Finally, with the help of the SPH model, we preliminarily si- the particle approximation [22] is carried out, that is, the integral is
mulate the water entry of a three-dimensional hull structure with full converted into the sum of the particles. The specific forms are:
size and flow characteristics are also obtained with the aid of pressure
N
and speed fields simulated. mj
f (ri) f (rj ) W (ri rj , h )
The contents of this paper are as follows: the second section in- j =1 j (6)
troduces the basic theory and improvement measures of the SPH
method; the third section gives the validation of the water entry of the N
mj
bow-flare ship section; the fourth section shows the results and dis- f (ri) f (rj ) W (ri rj, h)
j=1 j (7)
cussion in terms of the water entry of the two-dimensional hull section
and the three-dimensional hull structure; some conclusions are drawn where the subscript i and j indicate a pair of particles interacting in the
in the last section. range of Ω, m the mass of the fluid particle. Through the above particle
approximation [22], the NS equation can be finally discretized into:

2
H. Cheng, et al. Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

d i N
mj dt is the ghost particle acceleration of the rigid body calculated by
= i (ui uj )· W (ri r j, h) +I Eq. (9). Finally, the velocity of each rigid ghost particle to be updated is
dt j=1 j (8)
calculated by the following equation:
N pi + pj
du i u w = Uc + c × (rw rc ) (19)
= mj W (ri rj, h) + g + R
dt (9)
j =1 i j
where the translational velocity Uc and the angular velocity ωc of the
where ℑ and ℜ are the artificial dissipation term [40] added in the rigid body are updated by Eq. (15) and Eq. (16) respectively. The forth-
continuity equation and the artificial viscosity term added in the mo- order Runge Kutta scheme [6] is adopted in the present paper to update
mentum equation [37] respectively, which play a role in eliminating the particle information.
pressure noise in the flow field and improving the accuracy and stability
of the SPH method. Their specific forms are: 2.2.3. Particle shifting technique
N Without the limitation of mesh, the SPH method has natural ad-
( j )(ri rj ) mj
I = hc0
i
· W (ri rj, h) vantages in dealing with large deformation and crushing of free surface.
ri rj 2 + (0.01h)2
j=1 j (10) However, it also has some defects in solving the severe fluid-solid
coupling problems such as the water entry problem. Fig. 2 shows the
N
0 (u i uj )·(ri rj ) mj SPH result of the two-dimensional hull section entering water, and the
R = hc0 W (ri rj , h )
i j=1 ri rj 2 + (0.01h)2 j (11) local pressure distributions are extracted and demonstrated. It can be
seen that there are two main problems: firstly, the distribution of the
where δ and α are respectively the coefficient of the artificial dissipa- SPH particles is extremely uneven, which affects the calculation accu-
tion term and the coefficient of the artificial viscosity term. Referring to racy of flow field pressure and the evolution of free surface; secondly,
published literatures [37,40], their values are respectively set to be 0.2 the local low pressure areas can be observed near the moving rigid body
and 0.1 in the present paper. wall in the flow field. Such local low pressure will lead to a tension
instability phenomenon [43] in the SPH calculation, and thus the un-
2.2.2. SPH boundary condition physical void phenomenon appears in this position, which will greatly
In the present paper, the boundary of the computational domain affect the accuracy of the calculation of slamming load and pressure.
and the hull wall are considered as rigid bodies. In order to avoid Aiming at addressing the above-mentioned problems, many scholars
truncation error of SPH fluid particles around the boundary, the fixed have proposed some treatment schemes. In [44], an enhancement of
ghost particle method is adopted [41,42]. The pressure of ghost parti- pressure calculation in projection-based particle methods by in-
cles is calculated by interpolation of the pressure of surrounding fluid corporation background mesh scheme in SPH is developed. In the
particles: context of the ALE-SPH method, a specific transport velocity is in-
pf W (rf rw, h) + g·(rf rw ) W (rf rw, h) troduced to avoid the anisotropic particle structures present in the fluid
f f f
pw = [45]. Moreover, the most popular enhancement scheme is the shifting
W (r f rw, h) (12)
f algorithm which was first proposed and introduced into the ISPH
where subscript f and w respectively refer to fluid particles and ghost method for stability [46]. Later, it was improved by some scholars to
particles. When the pressure information of the ghost particle is ob- simulate the free surface flow problem [47,48]. In the recent years, an
tained, its density and mass information can be calculated by the state optimized particle shifting (OPS) scheme in ISPH context is proposed by
equation [42]: Khayyer et al. for simulations of free-surface flows [49]. Then, the OPS
scheme is implemented in a novel algorithm for multi-phase flows [50].
w = pw / c02 + 0 (13) The improved version of Sun et al. [51] is adopted in the present paper,
and its basic idea is to modify the displacement of particles within each
mw = w V0 (14)
time step. For the problems studied in this paper, the form can be re-
where V0 represents the volume of the ghost particle. In two-dimen- written as follows:
sional calculation, V0 is equal to the square of the initial particle spa-
ri* = ri + ri* (20)
cing Δx. In three-dimensional calculation, V0 is equal to the cube of the
initial particle spacing Δx. The motion of a rigid body can be divided 4
vi 2 W (ri rj, h) mj
into two parts, namely the translational part and the rotating part [42]. ri = 8 h· 1 + 0.2 W (ri rj , h )
The calculation formulas of the motion acceleration and the angular c0 j
W ( x i) ( i + j)

acceleration are: (21)

dUc w Ff It is worth noting that the above mentioned displacement correction
= +g
dt M (15) cannot be applied directly to all particles. In the paper [51], Sun et al.
detected the fluid particles near the free surface and altered the dis-
d c Tf w
= placement correction of fluid particles at this position to avoid calcu-
dt I (16)
lation errors. The problems to be dealt with in the present paper involve
where Ff w and Tf w are the resultant force and the resultant moment free surface boundary, moving rigid body boundary and solid wall
acting on the rigid body respectively. M and I are respectively the mass boundary, so it is necessary to modify displacement corrections near
and moment of inertia of the rigid body. The calculation formula of the these boundaries. To address the main problem presented in Fig. 2, we
resultant force and the resultant moment on the rigid body is: need to apply a shifting algorithm to the interior of the fluid domain
while excluding particles nearby the free surface and to apply a shifting
pw + pf
Ff w = mf m w W (rf rw, h) algorithm to the fluid particles that are already touching the rigid body
f fluid w solid f w (17) boundary as well as the solid wall boundary. In order to achieve this
goal, we need to determine the position of fluid particles within each
pw + pf time step [51]. The formula adopted herein is:
Tf w = mf m w (rw rc ) × W (rf rw, h)
f fluid w solid f w (18) mj
si = (ri rj ) W (ri rj , h )
where rc is the position of the center of mass of the rigid body, and duw/ j (fluid, solid ) j (22)

3
H. Cheng, et al.
Fig. 1. The fixed computation domain for the determine of the threshold value
Q.
where si is the value to determine the position of particles, and when it
is larger than a certain threshold value Q, the shifting algorithm will not
be applied to particles. To set the threshold value Q, Eq. (22) is cal-
culated within the fixed domain as shown in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1, the value
of S varies with the position of the particles, and the particles can be
categorized into three classes. The value of S at the intermediate par-
ticle is chosen to be the threshold value Q to distinguish the free surface
particle and the internal particle.
Fig. 3 shows the SPH results with the shifting algorithm. By com-
parison with Fig. 2, it can be clearly seen that with the shifting cor-
rection, there is no banding distribution of fluid particles near the free
surface, and the pressure distribution in the fluid field is good. Inside
the fluid domain, the unphysical flow void no longer exists, which
proves that the present shifting algorithm can effectively solve the
above-mentioned problems.
3. Numerical validation
The numerical example in the present paper refers to the experi-
mental work of Aarsnes [17]. Aarsnes [17] conducted the experimental
research on the water entry of a bow-flare ship section with different
roll angles, focusing on the pressure distribution and the impact force of
the structure during the water entry process. The sketch of the bow-
flare ship section is shown in Fig. 4. Four pressure measuring points are
distributed on its side, and its length in the z direction is 1000mm. The
total mass of the hull section is 261kg, which is initially at a distance
from the water surface and then released into the water freely. In the
two-dimensional SPH numerical simulation, the particle spacings
dx=0.008m, dx=0.004m, and dx=0.002m are used for the structure
and the fluid, and the lengths of the fluid domain in the x and y di-
rections are 3.2m and 2m respectively. In the three-dimensional SPH
Fig. 2. Numerical result of the two-dimensional hull section entering water based on the SPH method without the particle shifting technique.
4
Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268
numerical simulation, the particle spacing used in the present paper is
dx=0.004m, the lengths of the fluid domain in the x, y and z directions
are 1m, 1m and 1.8m respectively, and the total number of discrete
particles within the fluid domain is 28125000. The SPH model is
compiled with the C++ language and the simulation is accelerated
with the OpenMP parallelization architecture. The program is run on
the Dell workstation with 30 threads.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the velocity contour of the flow field during the
water entry of the bow-flare ship section in two and three dimensional
respectively. In this case, the vertical velocity of the structure when it
reaches the free surface is 0.61m/s, and its roll angle is 0 . In the 3-D
numerical results, the transparency of the section near the two sides of
the hull structure is increased to facilitate observation. It can be seen
that at t=0.07s, the flow field on both sides of the structure and at the
bottom of the structure has a large velocity. At t=0.15s, two symme-
trical jet streams are formed at the free surface due to the extrusion of
the structure and they have a large velocity. At the same time, the
observed phenomena in 3-D numerical simulation are basically con-
sistent with those in 2-D.
Fig. 7 shows the comparison of the resultant forces in the vertical
direction of the ship section with different SPH particle spacings. It can
be seen that when the particle spacing is dx=0.008m, the resultant
force curve of the structure in the vertical direction fluctuates to some
extent in the later stage of the water entry process. With the decrease of
the particle spacing dx, the curve of the vertical contact force gradually
converges. In addition, it can be seen from the partial enlarged drawing
that the vertical force curve shows high frequency generation and jump,
and the amplitude of the oscillation decreases with the decrease of the
particle spacing.
Fig. 8 shows the comparison between the numerical results of three
and two dimensional SPH and the experimental data [17] and the BEM
result [52]. It can be seen that the SPH numerical simulation results are
basically consistent with the experimental data [17], and the coin-
cidence degree is slightly better than the BEM numerical result [52]. At
the later stage of the water entry, there is a certain deviation between
the numerical results and the experimental data. The potential cause is
the reflected waves at the solid wall boundary reach the structure, re-
sulting in a larger contact force than the real scenario. Fig. 9 shows the
time-history curves of pressure at four measuring points on the side of
the structure during the water entry process. It can be seen that peak
value is showed in different time for different measuring points, while
its magnitude does not change significantly. By comparison, the SPH
numerical simulation results are in good agreement with the experi-
mental data [17] and the BEM results [52]. In general, the above va-
lidations show that the numerical method based on the present SPH
model can predicate the impact load of the water entry of the bow-flare
ship section effectively.
H. Cheng, et al.
Fig. 3. Numerical result of the two-dimensional hull section entering water based on the SPH method with the particle shifting technique.
4. Results and discussions
4.1. The water entry of the two-dimensional bow-flare ship section
This section mainly discusses the influence of the roll angle on the
water entry process. According to the experimental settings [17], five
different cases are adopted in the numerical simulation, including:
= 0 , V0 = 0.61m/s ; V0 = 0.57m/s ; =9. 8 , V0 = 0.61m/s ; = 14. 7 ,
V0 = 0.61m/s ; =20. 3 , V0 = 0.75m/s . The discrepancy between these
five cases mainly lies in the rolling Angle θ when the structure enters
water, and the slamming velocity of the structure does not change very
much. Due to the high computational cost in 3D numerical simulations,
all the cases in this section are simulated in two dimensions. In the
numerical simulation, the particle spacing is dx=0.002m, and the
lengths of the calculation domain are 3.2m and 2m in the x and y di-
rections respectively.
Fig. 10 shows the pressure nephograms of the flow field for the
water entry of the bow-flare ship section with different roll angles and
slamming velocities. In general, the pressure nephograms in different
cases are well resolved, and there is no obvious pressure noise observed
within the flow field. However, a clear discontinuity of pressure dis-
tribution close to the solid boundary can be observed. The main cause
of this unphysical phenomenon is the extremely large impact pressure
generated during the impact. In the WCSPH model, the artificial dis-
sipation term and the artificial viscosity term are added in the gov-
erning equation to eliminate the pressure noise in the flow filed.
However, when boundary particles participate in calculation, these two
artificial terms are removed to avoid unphysical interaction between
fluid and boundary, leading to the pressure discontinuity phenomenon
around the interface. As described in the introduction part, the SPH
method can be categorized into explicit weakly-compressible category
(WCSPH) and projection-based one [25,26]. In the latter one, the fluid
particle is deemed to be incompressible, and the PPE (Poisson Pressure
Equation) is introduced to obtain the pressure information of fluid.
Discretization of the source term of PPE and the Laplacian term by
higher order schemes can assure the pressure of fluid is calculated more
precisely. Besides, in the framework of the WCSPH method, the state of
Fig. 4. The sketch of the bow-flare ship section. (The 2-D perspective is shown in the left and the 3-D perspective is shown in the right.)
5
Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268
equation is applied to calculate the pressure information. In ideal cir-
cumstances, the density of particles at the free surface should be equal
to the reference density so that the calculated pressure is 0 herein. In
this case, the free surface does not require any special treatment.
However, in the process of WCSPH calculation, there are certain pres-
sure fluctuations within fluid domain, which causes the non-zero values
of pressure at the free surface observed in Fig. 10(d). Thus, in the fu-
ture, the projection-based SPH method shall be introduced to improve
the pressure distribution within the fluid and at the free surface.
As shown in Fig. 10, when the ship section enters the water hor-
izontally, the pressure distribution within the flow field is basically
symmetrical. At t=0.02s, only a small part of the ship section contacts
with the water, and there is no significant pressure disturbance within
the flow field. At t=0.07s, there exists a part of high pressure near the
bilge of the ship section. At t=0.15s, the whole structure is almost
submerged below the free surface, and the flow field is disturbed by the
ship section and shows great fluctuations in terms of the pressure. When
the ship section enters the water with a certain rolling angle, the evo-
lution of the free surface and the pressure distribution within the flow
field show an asymmetrical distribution. With the increases of the
rolling angle, the high pressure area near the bilge on one side of the
ship section expands, while it shrinks near the bilge on the other side of
the ship section.
Fig. 11 shows the time history of the resultant force in the vertical
and horizontal directions for the water entry of the two-dimensional
bow-flare ship section with different roll angles and slamming velo-
cities. The resultant force acting on the structure is calculated according
to Eq. (17). It can be seen that the peak value of the vertical slamming
force does not change significantly with the increase of the roll angels.
When the structure enters the water horizontally, the resultant force in
the lateral direction is basically 0. With the increase of the roll angle,
the lateral resultant force increases significantly. By comparison, it can
be seen that the SPH numerical simulation results are in good agree-
ment with the BEM numerical simulation results [17] and experimental
data [52] in the vertical direction. However, in the lateral direction, the
SPH numerical simulation results and the BEM results [52] are in poor
agreement with the experimental data [17]. We suspect that there exist
H. Cheng, et al.
Fig. 5. Snapshots of the evolution of the 2-D bow-flare ship section water entry. (The flow field is presented with velocity contour.)
Fig. 6. Snapshots of the evolution of the 3-D bow-flare ship section water entry. (The flow field is presented with velocity contour.)
Fig. 7. Time history of the vertical contact forces during the impacting process
for different particle resolutions. (The particle spacing dx=0.008m,
dx=0.004m, and dx=0.002m are used in the 2D SPH simulation.)
Fig. 8. Time history of the vertical contact forces during the impacting process
for different methods. (The two-dimensional and three-dimensional SPH results
are compared with the experimental data [17] and the BEM results [52].)
6
Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268
measuring errors in the experiment data. As for the = 0 case, the ship
section with a symmetrical shape impacts water horizontally. The
slamming force in the lateral direction should be 0 theoretically.
However, as shown in Fig. 10 (a), the lateral slamming force of the
experiment fluctuates irregularly as time goes on. In general, for the
given roll angles ( = 0 20. 3 ), the water-entry bow-flare ship sec-
tion bears more impact force in the vertical direction. The peak value of
the vertical slamming force does not change significantly with the roll
angle increasing, which is consistent with the conclusion obtained in
[17]. However, it can be seen from Fig. 11, the slamming force acting
on the bilge of the ship section will increase with the increase of the roll
angle, which poses a great threat to the hull structure.
Fig. 12 shows the evolution of the free surface for the water entry of
the two-dimensional bow-flare ship section with different roll angles
and slamming velocities. In general, when the ship section enters the
water horizontally, the free surface is symmetrically distributed. On the
contrary, the free surface shows an asymmetric distribution when the
ship section enters water obliquely. At t=0.07s, the spray jet on the free
surface is generated but not fully developed. When the bow-flare ship
section enters water with a certain roll angle, the fluid accumulates
more on the right side of the structure, and the accumulation of the
water increases with the roll angle increasing. By comparison, the
height of the spray jet on the free surface is basically same among the
different roll angles. At t=0.15s, with the structure completely sub-
merged under the water, the spray jet on the free surface is fully de-
veloped. By comparison, it can be clearly seen that the height and the
length of the spray jet on the right side of the structure increase with the
roll angle increasing. Moreover, the water tongue structure at the distal
end of the flow jet can maintain a complete shape when the structure
enters the water at a small roll angle. However with the increase of the
roll angle, the water tongue gradually becomes unstable and even
broken at last. This is because with the increase of the spray jet velocity,
the Froude number of the fluid at the water tongue increases corre-
spondingly, and it is more difficult for the fluid to maintain its shape. At
t=0.15s for =20. 3 , the tip of the water tongue fall back to the free
H. Cheng, et al.
Fig. 9. The curves of pressure-time at the four pressure measuring points. (The two-dimensional SPH results are compared with the experimental data [17] and the
BEM results [52].)
surface. On the contrary, the height of the spray jet on the left side of
the structure has not changed significantly with the roll angle in-
creasing. This is because when the ship section enters water with a roll
angle, more kinetic energy of the structure is transformed to the pile-up
on the right side of the structure, and the spraying jet is more likely to
be generated herein.
During the water entry process, the generation of the spray jet is
mainly caused by the flow separation within the flow field. For better
analysis of the flow separation phenomenon within the flow field, the
velocity vector and pressure contours in the local domain are extracted
and demonstrated in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 respectively. As can be seen
from Fig. 13 (a), for the case of = 0 , at t=0.07s, an obvious flow
separation phenomenon occurs near the free surface, and a water
tongue has been formed, which has a large velocity and injection angle.
For the case of =20. 3 , at t=0.07s, the pile-up water with a large
velocity can be clearly observed on the right side of the structure.
However, there is no obvious flow separation phenomenon, and the
spray jet is not formed yet, which indicates that the flow separation
phenomenon within the flow field will be delayed with the roll angle
increasing.
In Fig. 14, the velocity vector near the free surface is simplified into
two currents A and B which are mainly driven by the high-pressure area
of the flow field on the right side of the structure. The local current A is
the main component of the spray jet on the free surface. With the in-
crease of the roll angle, the high-pressure area on the right side of the
structure increases correspondingly, causing the local current A to have
a larger kinetic energy. Thus, for the larger roll angle condition, the
spray jet on the free surface has a larger velocity, which has a big in-
fluence on the shape of the water tongue. Throughout the process, the
flow B plays an important role in assisting the generation of the spray
jet. As shown in Fig. 14(b), the flow B also has a big kinetic energy
under the action of the high-pressure area on the right side of the
structure, and it converges the flow A near the free surface. Under the
extrusion action of the upwelling flow B, the incident angle of the flow
A will increase correspondingly. However, for the case of = 0 as
shown in Fig. 14(a), the upweilling flow B does not meet the flow A due
to the large incident angle of the flow A. Thus, the incident angle of the
spray flow does not change significantly in the later stage. In general,
the formation of the spray jet for the oblique water entry is mainly
caused by two local currents A and B which have a big kinetic energy
due to the impact of the structure. These two local currents converge at
the inflection point on the side of the hull section and squeeze each
other forming the spray jet finally, where the flow A is the major
components of the spray jet and the flow B plays an important role in
lifting the incident angle of the spray jet.
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Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268
4.2. The water entry of the full-scale hull structure
The structural shape studied in the last section is the bow-flare ship
section which has a large deadrise angle. For a real hull structure, the
cross-section shape varies along its longitudinal direction, which has a
great influence on the bottom impact process. To thoroughly investigate
the characteristics of the flow field and impact load, the water entry of
the hull structure with full size should be modeled. Due to the com-
plexity of the real hull structure, few experimental and theoretical
works has been done to investigate the whole process of the water entry
of the hull structure. As for the numerical investigation, the main
challenge lies in the huge amount of computation and the establishment
of model. However, in recent years, with the rapid development and
mature of computer and numerical technology, it is possible to realize
the huge and complex computation. Thus, in the present paper, the
water entry of the hull structure with full size is simulated based on the
improved SPH method. The revolution of the free surface and the im-
pacting load during the impact process will be analyzed.
The sketch of the three-dimensional hull structure adopted in this
paper is shown in Fig. 15. The lengths of the hull structure in x, y and z
directions are 3.0m, 1.5m and 11.1m respectively. The total mass of the
hull structure is 12000kg. In the numerical calculation, the particle
spacing dx is set to be 0.05m, and the lengths of the fluid domain in the
directions of x, y and z are 20m, 10m and 15m respectively. The total
number of the discrete particles within the flow field is 24,000,000. The
time step used for the SPH calculation is 0.0003s. The hull structure is
placed horizontally above the free surface and then release with a
vertical velocity 5m/s. Fig. 16 shows the velocity contour of the flow
field at different moments when the ship enters the water. It can be seen
that at t=0s, the hull is located above the free surface without touching
the free surface. Soon, at t=0.12s, the keel of the hull contacts with the
free surface, and the fluid under the hull is pushed aside with a large
velocity. At t=0.24s, with the diving of the hull structure, the flow
separation phenomenon occurs on the both side of the structure and the
spray jet is generated on the free surface. The most drastic flow se-
paration phenomenon can be observed at the middle of the hull
structure. Finally, at t=0.36s, the hull has completely submerged below
the free surface, and the tail end of the spray jet is broken and falls back
into the water.
Fig. 17 shows the pressure contour of the flow field at t=0.32s for
the water entry of the hull structure. The side view, the front view and
the top view of the pressure contour are presented on the left, while the
three-dimensional view of the pressure contour is shown on the right.
At this moment, the whole structure has been submerged below the free
surface. At the same time, the symmetrical spray jet on the free surface
H. Cheng, et al. Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

Fig. 10. The pressure nephogram of the flow field for the water entry of the bow-flare ship section with different roll angles and slamming velocities. Three typical
moments: t = 0.02 s, t = 0.07 s and t = 0.15s (from left to right), are shown in different cases.

has been fully developed. It can be seen that the maximum pressure
area is distributed at the bottom of the hull structure, where the bow of
the keel is most dangerous area. Figs. 18 and 19 show the time-history
of the acceleration and velocity of the hull structure during the impact
phase. As shown in Figs. 18 and 19, the acceleration and the velocity of
the hull structure in the x and z directions are almost zero. The accel-
eration in the y direction changes dramatically, reaching a peak value
of about 60m/s2 at 0.2s, and then decrease rapidly. In the early stage of
the impact process, the vertical velocity of the hull structure increase
linearly with time. This is due to the small contact area between the
hull structure and the free surface in the early stage of the impact, re-
sulting in a small resultant force acting on the hull structure. Then, the
vertical velocity of the hull structure decreases rapidly as the accel-
eration in the y-direction reaches a peak value. Besides, the slamming
forces on the dull are extracted and shown in Fig. 20. As Fig. 20 shown,
the slamming forces in the x and z direction are basically zero. The
slamming force in the y direction reaches a peak value at t=1.6s, then
start to decline.

8
H. Cheng, et al. Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

Fig. 11. The time-history of the slamming force for the water entry of the two-dimensional bow-flare ship section with different roll angles and slamming velocities.
The vertical slamming force is shown on the left in different cases and the lateral slamming force is shown on the right. The SPH numerical results are compared with
the experimental data [17] and the BEM results [52].

9
H. Cheng, et al. Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

Fig. 12. Snapshots of the evolution of the free surface for the water entry of the two-dimensional bow-flare ship section with different roll angles ( = 0 20. 3 ).

Fig. 13. The velocity vector of the flow field for the water entry of the two-dimensional bow-flare ship section with different roll angles.

10
H. Cheng, et al. Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

Fig. 14. The pressure contour of the flow field for the water entry of the two-dimensional bow-flare ship section with different roll angles.

5. Conclusion

The present paper is dedicated to studying the characteristics of the

Fig. 15. The sketch of the hull structure.
impact load and the flow field for the water entry of the bow-flare ship
section. To this aim, the SPH method with some advanced numerical
technique is utilized. When dealing with the water entry problem based
on the traditional SPH model, the non-uniform particle distribution and
the unphysical flow void occur in the flow field, which greatly affects
the free surface evolution and the impact load calculation. To address
this problem, the shifting algorithm is introduced into the SPH model
and modified according to different boundary conditions. On this basis,
the improved SPH model is firstly adopted to model the water entry of

Fig. 16. The velocity contour of the flow field for the water entry of the hull structure.

11
H. Cheng, et al.
Fig. 17. The pressure contour of the flow field for the water entry of the hull structure.
Fig. 18. Time history of the acceleration of the hull structure during the impact
process.
Fig. 19. Time history of the velocity of the hull structure during the impact
process.
the bow-flare ship section in two and three dimensions respectively.
The impact load and the pressure data during the impact process are
extracted and compared with the relevant experimental data and the
BEM results, which validates the accuracy and stability of the present
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Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268
Fig. 20. Time history of the slamming forces of the hull structure during the
impact process.
SPH model. Then, according to the experimental setting, we carry out
the numerical study on the water entry of two-dimensional bow-flare
section under different roll angles. The variation rule of the impact
force is analyzed. Moreover, we make an in-depth analysis of the free
surface evolution and the flow separation phenomenon by combining
the velocity vector diagram of the flow field and the local pressure
contour. The results show that when the roll angle increases, the height
and length of the spray jet on one side of the structure will increase
accordingly. The formation of the spray jet is mainly caused by two
local currents (the flow separation) near the structure. These two cur-
rents have great kinetic energy due to the strong impact force, and
converge at the inflection point on the side of the two-dimensional ship
section, squeezing each other and finally forming a spray jet on the free
surface. Finally, the present SPH model is used to simulate the hor-
izontally water entry of the three-dimensional hull structure, and the
velocity and pressure contour of the flow field during the impact pro-
cess are extracted and analyzed. The results show that when the hull
structure enters the water and horizontally, the front area of the keel is
H. Cheng, et al. Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

subjected to the maximum impact pressure. The research work in this
paper has guiding significance to engineering, and provides consulta-
tion for design and optimization for hull design and manufacture.
Declaration of Competing Interest
Acknowledgements
This paper is supported by the National Numerical Wind Tunnel
Project (2018-ZT2B05) and the National Natural Science Foundations
of China (51879053, 51925904).

No conflict of interest.

Appendix A

In this section, the present SPH method is further validated through the simulation of the impact of two fluid patches. Referring to Khayyer et al.
[53], two impact cases are carried out based on the SPH model in the present paper, and the numerical results are extracted and compared with the
analytical solution. In the first case, the impact of two identical fluid patches is simulated based on the present SPH method. The sketch of the case 1
is shown in Fig. A.21 (a). The fluid patch has a rectangular shape with a length L=1.0m and width 2H=0.66m. The velocity of the fluid patch is
3.4m/s. As the WCPSH method is adopted in the present paper, the fluid is considered to be weakly compressible, and the Mach number is 0.1. The
initial particle spacing is 0.01m. The mechanic energy of the fluid patch during the simulation will be extracted and analyzed. Fig. A.21 (b)-(c) show
typical snapshots of the impact of the rectangular fluid patches. It can be seen that the two fluid patches squeeze each other forming two horizontal
jet flows.
In the second case, the impact of two fluid patches with different masses is simulated also based on the present SPH method. The sketch of the
case 2 is shown in Fig. A.22 (a). The smaller fluid patch has a rectangular shape with a length L1=0.5m and width 2L1=1m. The bigger fluid patch
has a rectangular shape with a length L1=0.5m and width 6L1=1.5m. The velocity of the fluid patches is also 3.4m/s. The Mach number is 0.1 and
the initial particle spacing is 0.01m. Fig. A.22 (b)-(c) show typical snapshots of the impact of the rectangular fluid patches. Different from the case 1,
the jet flows formed in the second case is oblique.
Fig. A.23 shows the analytical and numerical time histories of the evolution of mechanical energy by SPH methods, where the first case is present
in Fig. A.23 (a) and the second case is shown in Fig. 3 (b). In the published paper [53], the fluid is considered to be incompressible and inviscid. Thus,
theoretically, the mechanical energy of the fluid patches will show a sudden loss of the initial energy during the impact, as shown in Fig. A.23. For
the SPH results, the mechanical energy of the fluid patches also decays during the impact, but it will take some time for the energy curve to reach the
theoretical value. After that, there will be a small increase in mechanical energy. As the artificial viscosity term is adopted in the present SPH model,
there exists unphysical energy dissipation during the impact, which can be observed in Fig. A.23. In general, for the given period of time (0 ~0.3),
the unphysical energy dissipation is relatively small and acceptable. However, for the long term numerical simulation, a more stable numerical
scheme should be applied to avoid the unphysical energy dissipation. More details can be founded in the published article [53].

Fig. A.21. Snapshots of the impact of two rectangular fluid patches. (Two identical fluid patches).

13
H. Cheng, et al. Applied Ocean Research 101 (2020) 102268

Fig. A.22. Snapshots of the impact of two rectangular fluid patches. (Two different fluid patches).

14
H. Cheng, et al.
Fig. A.23. Analytical and numerical time histories of the evolution of mechanical energy by SPH methods. (a) case 1: impact of two identical fluid patches; (b) case 2:
impact of two different fluid patches.
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