Desalination 274 (2011) 39–43

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Desalination
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / d e s a l

Development of an electrochemical cell for the removal of Reactive Black 5

Maria Rivera, Marta Pazos, Maria Ángeles Sanromán ⁎
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Vigo, Isaac Newton Building, Campus As Lagoas, Marcosende 36310, Vigo, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The decolourisation of an azo dye, Reactive Black 5 (RB5), by an electrochemical technology was studied in
Received 13 September 2010 both cubic and cylindrical cell configurations, each with a working volume of 0.4 L and graphite electrodes.
Received in revised form 31 December 2010 Low decolourisation was detected in the treatment of pure solutions of RB5, but a significant extent of
Accepted 25 January 2011
decolourisation was observed in the presence of Na2SO4. The extent of decolourisation was largely dependent
Available online 21 February 2011
on the cell configuration, and the best results were obtained when the cylindrical cell was employed. Nearly
Keywords:
complete decolourisation was achieved in 3 h for an effluent containing 70 mg L− 1 RB5 and 0.1 M Na2SO4, and
Decolourisation the TOC removal was approximately 95%. In the presence of the non-inert electrolyte NaCl, complete
Dye decolourisation was detected. However, due to the chloro-organic compounds formed in the electrochemical
Electrochemical oxidation with NaCl, the TOC removal in the most optimal conditions was approximately 93%.
Phenanthrene Furthermore, the efficiency of the cell configuration designs for the remediation of other organic compounds
Reactive Black 5 such as phenanthrene, a typical polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), has been demonstrated.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction been great interest in electrochemical methods to decolourise and

Synthetic dyes are used to colour many different products such as
textiles, paper, cosmetics and drugs [1]. This process generates large
volumes of wastewater. In the textile industry, 200 to 500 L of water is
needed to produce 1 kg of finished products [2]. Specifically, the
dyeing of 1 kg of cotton with reactive dyes demands from 70 to 150 L
of water, 0.6–0.8 kg NaCl and from 30 to 60 g of dyestuffs. More than
80,000 tons of reactive dyes are produced and consumed each year,
making it possible to quantify the total amount of pollution caused by
their use [3].
Synthetic azo dyes are extensively used in the textile and dyestuff
industries and are considered recalcitrant xenobiotic compounds, due
to the presence of a N=N bond and groups such as aromatic rings that
are not easily degraded. The discharge of these coloured compounds
into the environment causes considerable non-aesthetic pollution and
serious health risks [4]. Common chemical and physical methods used
for water purification are not sufficiently effective, and the application
of chemical agents for compound decomposition could lead to
additional environmental pollution [5].
Several techniques have been employed for the removal of dyes
from wastewaters. Due to the low biodegradability of dyes, conven-
tional biological treatment processes are not very effective. Conse-
quently, dye-containing wastewaters are usually treated by physical
or chemical processes [6]. Environmental pressures may require novel
strategies for technology developments. In recent years, there has
degrade dye molecules [7]. The electric current induces redox
reactions resulting in the transformation and destruction of the
organic compounds and almost complete oxidation to CO2 and H2O.
The oxidation of pollutants in an electrolytic cell can occur through
the following processes:
– Anodic oxidation: This refers to processes in which an electron
transfer reaction of the desired pollutant occurs at the surface of
the anode [8,9]. The electrode reactions involving the degrada-
tion of organic compounds are given by Eqs. 1 and 2. The
potential required for the oxidation of organic compounds is
usually high and collateral reactions such as water electrolysis
are inevitable.
þ
M + H2 O→M ðHO⋅Þ + H + e
−
ð1Þ
þ −
MðHO⋅Þ + R→M + CO2 + H2 O + H + e ð2Þ
where: M is the electrode and R is the organic compound.
– Cathodic reduction: Electroreduction of textile wastewater with
azo dyes was also reported [10,11]. The reductive cleavage of the
azo chromogene leads to a decrease in the specific absorbance of
the dye without the addition of chemicals or formation of sludge.

– Indirect oxidation: This process relies on the electrolytic genera-

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 34 986 812383; fax: + 34 986 812380. tion of strong oxidising agents. The action of these oxidising
E-mail address: sanroman@uvigo.es (M.Á. Sanromán). species leads to total or partial decontamination, respectively [4].

0011-9164/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.074
40 M. Rivera et al. / Desalination 274 (2011) 39–43
When NaCl is used, the electrode reactions to indirect degradation
of organic compound proceeds as follows:
− −
2Cl →Cl2 + 2e
þ −
Cl2 + H2 O→H + Cl + HOCl
þ −
HOCl→H + OCl
− −
R + OCl →CO2 + H2 O + Cl
where: R is the organic compound.
The main advantages of using these electrochemical methods
include that they do not consume a significant amount of chemicals,
nor do they produce sludge. Additionally, the processes are commonly
performed at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, thus
avoiding the undesirable volatilization and discharge of untreated
residues [12].
Despite an extensive literature concerning the application of
electrochemical technologies for removing dyes from water [4], there
are no reports concerning the influence of electrochemical cell design
in the dye elimination by anodic oxidation, to the best of our
knowledge. To favour the electrochemical oxidation of organic
compounds, we evaluated the effect of working with anodic surfaces
that have higher active surfaces areas than cathodic ones.
In this study, an azo dye, Reactive Black 5 (RB5), was selected as
the model dye. The aims of the study are to investigate (1) the effect of
the electrochemical cell configuration in the anode oxidation and
(2) the influence of electrolyte addition during electrochemical dye
removal. The best conditions and configuration were then tested in
the electrochemical degradation of phenanthrene, a model organic
compound.
2. Experimental
2.1. Chemicals
The RB5 (C.I. No. 20505; C26H21Na4N5O19S6, purity ca. 55%,
MW = 991.8 g mol− 1) and phenanthrene were purchased from
Sigma-Aldrich and were used as received. The phenanthrene solution
was prepared by mixing the PAH with a solubilising solution of 2%
acetone and 1% Tween 80. NaCl was obtained from Panreac (analytical
grade, purity 99%, Spain) and Na2SO4 from Riedel-de Haen (analytical
grade, France). Both were used as electrolyte during the electro-
chemical process.
2.2. Electrochemical cells
Experiments were carried out in two electrochemical cell config-
urations. The first, a cubic cell (Fig. 1a), had a working volume of 0.4 L
with graphite electrodes (6.5 cm high and 8.5 cm wide) and had an
electrode gap of 8 cm.
The second configuration, a cylindrical cell (Fig. 1b), consisted of a
cylindrical vessel with a working volume of 0.4 L and two coaxial
cylindrical electrodes. The cathode was placed in the centre of the cell
and consisted of a graphite bar with a diameter of 6.5 mm, while the
anode was attached to the cell wall and consisted of a sheet of
graphite (6.5 cm high with a diameter of 8.5 cm).
In both cases, a constant potential difference (5 V) was applied
with a power supply (HP model 3662), the process was monitored
with a multimeter (Fluke 175) and magnetic stirrings were used to
prevent concentration and pH gradients. Samples of reaction mixtures
were taken from the electrochemical cells during the electrochemical
process to be analysed. The experiments were performed twice, and
the experimental margin of error was below 3%.
ð3Þ
ð4Þ
ð5Þ
ð6Þ
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental set-up: (A) cubic cell and (B) cylindrical cell.
2.3. Analytical methods
For analytical determinations, aliquots were taken at convenient
times. The concentration of the treated RB5 solution was measured
spectrophotometrically (Unicam Helios β, Thermo Electron Corp.)
based on the constructed calibration curves at an absorption
wavelength of 597 nm. The sample was diluted with distilled water
if its absorbance exceeded the range of calibration curve. The
decolourisation, expressed in terms of percentage, was calculated
using the diminution of the dye concentration during the electro-
chemical treatment [13]. Moreover, the degradation of aromatic
fragments of RB5 solution was also measured spectrophotometrically
at 310 and 254 nm. The assays were performed in duplicate, and the
experimental error was less than 3%.
Total organic content (TOC) was determined by using a Lange
cuvette test (LCK 380) in a Hach Lange DR 2800. The sample was
introduced into the Lange cuvette. Under the conditions of the test,
the organic carbon forms carbon dioxide, which diffuses through a
membrane into an indicator solution. The change of colour of the
indicator solution is evaluated photometrically.
Phenanthrene concentration was assayed by HPLC using an Agilent
1100 HPLC with an XDB-C8 reverse-phase column. The injection
volume was set at 5 μL and the isocratic eluent, 60% acetonitrile and
40% water, was pumped at a rate of 1 mL min− 1. Detection was
performed using a diode array detector from 200 to 400 nm.
2.4. Kinetic study
The dye concentration profiles during the treatment time were
fitted to a suitable kinetic equation, and the rate constant was
calculated using SigmaPlot 4.0 (1997) software. The SigmaPlot curve
fitter uses an iterative procedure based on the Marquardt–Levenberg
algorithm, which seeks the values of the parameters that minimise the
sum of the squared differences between the observed and predicted
values of the dependent variable.
3. Results and discussion
To achieve a high level of efficiency in the overall process of the
electrochemical treatment, several factors must be taken into
consideration such as the cell configuration and the electrolyte
used, including both the species and concentration of electrolyte. In
this study, a cell with anodic surfaces that have higher active surfaces
areas than cathodic ones was tested and compared with a conven-
tional cell in which both electrodes have the same surface area. In
addition, a study was conducted comparing the electrochemical
treatment without an electrolyte, using the inert electrolyte Na2SO4
and using the non-inert electrolyte NaCl in an attempt to increase the
efficiency of the decolourisation process.
 M. Rivera et al. / Desalination 274 (2011) 39–43
3.1. Effect of cell configuration and the Na2SO4 addition
Initially, the electrochemical process in both the cubic and the
cylindrical cells was tested at an initial RB5 concentration of 70 mg L− 1
[14,15]. The visible spectrum of RB5 shows a maximum absorption in
the range of visible light (λ = 597 nm), which is in accordance with the
blue colour of RB5 solutions. Thus, the measurement of the colour
removal was obtained using a UV/vis spectrophotometer at 597 nm.
As it can be observed in Fig. 2, the direct oxidation of RB5 on the
anode surface in the experiment performed without electrolyte was
very low in both cells, reaching a decolourisation percentage of only
10% and 25% after 3 h of treatment in cubic and cylindrical cells,
respectively. These values indicate that the low conductivity of the
RB5 solution, which also limited the extent of other reactions on the
electrodes, for example, electrolysis of water. However, the best result
was obtained when the cylindrical cell was used. Although the total
electrode surface area for both configurations was the same, the
anodic surface area in the cylindrical cell was greater, which favoured
the degradation of organic compounds.
The relationship between electrolytes and the electrochemical
process has been established previously [7,16]. In general, high
electrolyte concentration increases the electric current densities in
the solution and, for this reason, high concentrations of inert
electrolyte should increase the electrode reaction rate. In these
experiments, the electrolyte Na2SO4 at concentrations ranging from
0.001 to 0.1 M was added to check its effect in the electrochemical
process.
As can be seen in Fig. 2, the oxidation of RB5 performed in the
presence of 0.01 M Na2SO4 increased the reaction rate significantly,
and high colour removals were reached using a shorter treatment
time. When the concentration of sulphate was increased to 0.1 M, the
treatment time necessary to obtain the same oxidation was reduced.
Fig. 3 shows the visible spectrum of RB5 before and after treatment
in both cells. In agreement with the results obtained by Damodar and
You [17], it is clearly evident that RB5 exhibits three characteristic
absorbance peaks found at 595, 310 and 254 nm, which were
progressively changed during the treatment.
The peak at 595 nm in the visible region is characteristic of the
chromophore containing a long conjugated π-system, linking the two
azo double bond groups of RB5, which was used to measure the
decolourisation [18,19]. In the cylindrical cell, the intensity of the
visible peak decreased continuously until its disappearance after
about 3 h of treatment, leading to complete solution decolourisation.
At this electrolysis time, only 95% of the initial TOC was removed.
100
80
Decolourisation (%)
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)
Fig. 2. Decolourisation profiles of RB5 in the cubic cell (open symbols) and the
cylindrical cell (solid symbols) during electrochemical treatment in the presence of
Na2SO4 (0 M: square, 0.01 M: triangle, 0.1 M: circle).
41
3.5
3.0
2.5
Absorbance
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 3. UV/visible spectra of RB5 during electrochemical dye degradation at 0 h (solid
line) and after 3 h in the cubic cell (dashed line) and in the cylindrical cell (dotted line)
in the presence of 0.1 M Na2SO4.
Similar behaviour was detected operating with the cubic cell. The
absorbance was reduced over time, and a decolourisation of 84% was
measured at the end of the experiment that corresponded to a TOC
reduction of 76%.
The absorption peaks at 310 and 254 nm in the UV region are
characteristic peaks of naphthalene and benzene ring structure,
respectively, which correspond to π–π* electron transitions [18,19].
In both cells, it was observed that the rate of colour removal was faster
than the rate of degradation of aromatic fragments. For this reason,
the changes in absorbance are more rapid than those observed in TOC,
indicating that during the first stages of the treatment, there are
mechanisms that involve the oxidation of the dye to other simpler
organics. The oxidation of this complex molecule RB5 can lead to the
formation of many intermediates, which rapidly decreases the
measured absorbance at 597 nm, by elimination of chromophore
groups prior to the formation of aliphatic carboxylic acids and carbon
dioxide which justifies the changes in the TOC values.
After the experiments, negligible RB5 presence was detected in the
electrodes. Therefore, these results clearly indicate that the RB5 dye
was decolourised and also degraded during this process. Also, it
showed that the rate of mineralization in the cubic cell was slower
than the cylindrical cell. Therefore, the cylindrical cell was selected for
the kinetic study.
3.2. Kinetic study
It was found that the concentrations of dyes in aqueous solutions
decreased exponentially with treatment time following a first-order
kinetic with respect to the dye concentration. As shown in Fig. 4, the
value of the kinetic coefficient k depends on the Na2SO4 concentration
used. For this reason, the actual behaviour of this process follows
pseudo-first order kinetics, whose pseudo-first order kinetic coeffi-
cient depends nonlinearly on the Na2SO4 concentration. Therefore, it
was determined that the relationship between the kinetic coefficient
and the Na2SO4 concentration can be rewritten as follows:
K max ·CNa2 SO4
K= ð7Þ
Cs + CNa2 SO4
200
As can be seen in Fig. 4, the experimental data shows a good fit to
the theoretical model present in Eq. 7 (R2 = 0.989). The kinetic
parameters were Kmax = 0.00197 min− 1 and Cs = 0.0027 M. Thus,
high concentrations of inert electrolyte should be able to increase the
reaction rate. There is a limit to the amount of electrolyte that can be
42 M. Rivera et al. / Desalination 274 (2011) 39–43

0.025
and benzene ring structure at 310 and 254 nm in UV region,
respectively, were higher in the presence of NaCl than Na2SO4.
Moreover, Wang et al. [22] have emphasised that besides colour
0.020
removal, toxicity is also an important criterion when evaluating
effluent quality. Thus, during electrochemical oxidation, chloride is
0.015
anodically converted to chlorine and/or hypochloric acid, which
k (min)-1

oxidise organic matters and are simultaneously reduced to chloride.

Therefore, the toxic chloro-organic compounds that may be formed
0.010 during electrochemical oxidation with NaCl are the primary disad-
vantage of this electrolyte [23].
Consequently, these results indicate the suitability of the cylindri-
0.005 cal cell in the presence of Na2SO4 at the limit of electrolyte
concentration to the electrochemical treatment of coloured effluents.

0.000
0.000 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Concentration of Na2SO4 (M)
Fig. 4. Pseudo-first order kinetic constants to different electrolyte Na2SO4 concentra-
tions. The symbols represent the experimental data and the line represents the fit to
Eq. 2.
used to affect the reaction rate, that is, after a certain amount of
electrolyte is added, the maximum reaction rate is attained and no
additional increase in electrolyte addition will affect the rate. This
behaviour is in accordance with the results obtained by Rivera et al.
[20] in the decolourisation of Lissamine Green by sonoelectrochemical
treatment.
3.3. Effect of NaCl
In an attempt to improve the electrochemical treatment, a
comparative study with the non-inert electrolyte NaCl was conducted.
These experiments were carried out in both cells with a solution of
70 mg L− 1 RB5 and 10 g L− 1 NaCl.
As can be seen in Fig. 5, complete decolourisation was obtained in
both cells. However the TOC removal was higher in the cylindrical cell
(93%) than the cubic cell (79%). Therefore, the addition of chloride
ions is beneficial to the decolourisation of RB5, but not to the TOC
reduction.
In agreement with the results that were obtained by Song et al.
[21], it was detected that the addition of chloride ions is beneficial to
stripping the chromophoric groups, but is unfavourable for cleavage
of the phenyl groups. Thus, the characteristic peaks of naphthalene
3.5
3.0
0.12
3.4. Degradation of phenanthrene
The high potential of the cell design to treat RB5 solutions was
demonstrated because it led to higher decolourisation and mineral-
ization levels. The data suggested that this treatment could offer an
alternative for the degradation of other recalcitrant organic com-
pounds, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). These
compounds constitute a class of organic substances that consist of two
or more fused benzene rings made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
These hydrocarbons are by-products of the incomplete combustion or
pyrolysis of recalcitrant organic materials with strong mutagenic and/
or carcinogenic properties [24]. Thus, the remediation of PAH-
contaminated sites is an important environmental issue. It is difficult
to remediate the environment by conventional treatment methods
after PAHs have entered, as they are essentially recalcitrant and
persistent. For this reason, many research efforts have been expanded
to find suitable methods for the remediation of PAH-contaminated
soil and water [25,26].
Based on the excellent results obtained in the removal of RB5, a
comparative study between both cells, operating in the conditions
described above were applied to the model PAH phenanthrene, was
conducted. The samples were prepared with an initial concentration
of approximately 100 μM phenanthrene and 0.1 M Na2SO4.
As can be seen in Fig. 6, it is clear that the best results were obtained
when the cylindrical cell was employed. After experiments, negligible
phenanthrene presence was detected in the electrodes. Under the
above-listed optimal conditions, the initial phenanthrene concentra-
tion decreased by approximately 92% in 1 day, while in the cubic cell
the values were 60%. In both experiments, total mineralization was
detected at the end of the electrochemical treatment.
100
Phenanthrene removal(%)

80
2.5
Absorbance

2.0 60

1.5
40
1.0

20
0.5

0.0 0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Wavelength (nm) Time (d)

Fig. 5. UV/visible spectra of RB5 during electrochemical dye degradation at 0 h (solid Fig. 6. Degradation of phenanthrene profiles in the cubic cell (open symbols) and the
line) and after 3 h in the cubic cell (dashed line) and in the cylindrical cell (dotted line) cylindrical cell (solid symbols) during electrochemical treatment in the presence of
in the presence of 10 g L− 1 NaCl. 0.1 M Na2SO4.
 M. Rivera et al. / Desalination 274 (2011) 39–43
4. Conclusions
The results obtained in this work demonstrate that RB5 and
other organic compounds such as phenanthrene can be effectively
degraded by electrochemical treatment in cylindrical cells, in which
anodic surfaces that have higher active surface areas than cathodic
ones, with adequate presence of an inert electrolyte such as Na2SO4.
Moreover, the addition of NaCl can enhance the decolourisation but
retards the mineralization of RB5 in the range of concentration of
NaCl investigated. Therefore, the anodic oxidation process is a
promising approach to the treatment of wastewater design to
destroy recalcitrant pollutants such as dyes and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and
Innovation (CTQ2008-03059/PPQ).
References
[1] H. Zollinger, Colour Chemistry — Synthesis, Properties and Applications of Organic
Dyes Pigments, VCH Publishers, New York, 1987.
[2] M. Marcucci, G. Ciardelli, A. Mateucci, L. Ranieri, M. Russo, Experimental
campaigns on textile wastewater for reuse by means of different membranes
processes, Desalination 149 (2002) 137–143.
[3] P. Colindres, H. Yee-Madeira, E. Reguera, Removal of Reactive Black 5 from
aqueous solution by ozone for water reuse in textile dyeing processes,
Desalination 258 (2010) 154–158.
[4] C.A. Martínez-Huitle, E. Brillas, Decontamination of wastewaters containing
synthetic organic dyes by electrochemical methods: a general review, Appl. Catal.
B Environ. 87 (2009) 105–145.
[5] Z. Kozáková, M. Nejezchleb, F. Krčma, I. Halamová, J. Čáslavsk , J. Dolinová,
Removal of organic dye Direct Red 79 from water solutions by DC diaphragm
discharge: analysis of decomposition products, Desalination 258 (2010) 93–99.
[6] M. Anbia, S.A. Hariri, Removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution using
nanoporous SBA-3, Desalination 261 (2010) 61–66.
[7] M.C. Gutierrez, M. Pepio, M. Crespi, N. Mayor, Control factors in the electrochem-
ical oxidation of reactive dyes, Color Technol. 117 (2001) 356–361.
[8] J.D. Donaldson, S.M. Grimes, N.G. Yasri, B. Wheals, J. Parrick, W.E. Errington,
Anodic oxidation of the dye materials methylene blue, acid blue 25, reactive blue
2 and reactive blue 15 and the characterisation of novel intermediate compounds
in the anodic oxidation of methylene blue, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 77 (2002)
756–760.
43
[9] Y. Li, F. Wang, G. Zhou, Y. Ni, Aniline degradation by electrocatalytic oxidation,
Chemosphere 53 (2003) 1229–1234.
[10] T. Bechtold, E. Burtscher, A. Turcanu, Cathodic decolourisation of textile waste
water containing reactive dyes using a multi-cathode electrolyser, J. Chem.
Technol. Biotechnol. 76 (2001) 303–311.
[11] T. Bechtold, C. Mader, J. Mader, Cathodic decolourization of textile dyebaths: tests
with full scale plant, J. Appl. Electrochem. 32 (2002) 943–950.
[12] L.S. Andrade, T.T. Tasso, D.L. da Silva, R.C. Rocha-Filho, N. Bocchi, S.R. Biaggio, On
the performances of lead dioxide and boron-doped diamond electrodes in the
anodic oxidation of simulated wastewater containing the Reactive Orange 16 dye,
Electrochim. Acta 54 (2009) 2024–2030.
[13] M.A. Sanromán, M. Pazos, M.T. Ricart, C. Cameselle, Electrochemical decolourisa-
tion of structurally different dyes, Chemosphere 57 (2004) 233–239.
[14] S.A. Avlonitis, I. Poulios, D. Sotiriou, M. Pappas, K. Moutesidis, Simulated cotton
dye effluents treatment and reuse by nanofiltration, Desalination 221 (2008)
259–267.
[15] M.S. Secula, G.D. Suditu, I. Poulios, C. Cojocaru, I. Cretescu, Response surface
optimization of the photocatalytic decolorization of a simulated dyestuff effluent,
Chem. Eng. J. 141 (2008) 18–26.
[16] M.A. Sanromán, M. Pazos, C. Cameselle, Optimisation of electrochemical
decolourisation process of an azo dye as methyl orange, J. Chem. Technol.
Biotechnol. 79 (2004) 1349–1353.
[17] R.A. Damodar, S.-H. You, Performance of an integrated membrane photocatalytic
reactor for the removal of Reactive Black 5, Sep. Purif. Technol. 71 (2010) 44–49.
[18] I. Gültekin, N.H. Ince, Degradation of aryl-azo-naphthol dyes by ultrasound, ozone
and their combination: effect of α-substituents, Ultrason. Sonochem. 13 (2006)
208–214.
[19] S. Song, L. Xu, Z. He, J. Chen, X. Xiao, B. Yan, Mechanism of the photocatalytic
degradation of C.I. reactive black 5 at pH 12.0 using SrTiO3/CeO2 as the catalyst,
Environ. Sci. Technol. 41 (2007) 5846–5853.
[20] M. Rivera, M. Pazos, M.A. Sanromán, Improvement of dye electrochemical
treatment by combination with ultrasound technique, J. Chem. Technol.
Biotechnol. 84 (2009) 1118–1124.
[21] S. Song, J. Fan, Z. He, L. Zhan, Z. Liu, J. Chen, X. Xu, Electrochemical degradation of
azo dye C.I. Reactive Red 195 by anodic oxidation on Ti/SnO2–Sb/PbO2 electrodes,
Electrochim. Acta 55 (2010) 3606–3613.
[22] K.S. Wang, M.C. Wei, T.H. Peng, H.C. Li, S.J. Chao, T.F. Hsu, H.S. Lee, S.H. Chang,
Treatment and toxicity evaluation of methylene blue using electrochemical
oxidation, fly ash adsorption and combined electrochemical oxidation–fly ash
adsorption, J. Environ. Manage. 91 (2010) 1778–1784.
[23] K.S. Wang, H.Y. Chen, L.C. Huang, Y.C. Su, S.H. Chang, Degradation of Reactive Black
5 using combined electrochemical degradation-solar-light/immobilized TiO2 film
process and toxicity evaluation, Chemosphere 72 (2008) 299–305.
[24] K.L. White Jr., An overview of immunotoxicology and carcinogenic aromatic
hydrocarbons, J. Environ. Sci. Health 4 (1986) 163–202.
[25] J. Gómez, M.T. Alcántara, M. Pazos, M.A. Sanromán, A two-stage process using
electrokinetic remediation and electrochemical degradation for treating benzo[a]
pyrene spiked kaolin, Chemosphere 74 (2009) 1516–1521.
[26] M. Pazos, E. Rosales, T. Alcántara, J. Gómez, M.A. Sanromán, Decontamination of
soils containing PAHs by electroremediation: a review, J. Hazard. Mater. 177
(2010) 1–11.