Master course of Sedimentology and Laboratory

Report on the laboratory activities

Alessandro Paolo Carniti - 920082

30/04/2018

Contents 5 Bibliography 25

1 Introduction
2 Field trip in the TPB
2.1 Geological setting . . . . . . . .
2.2 Description of the stops . . . .
2.2.1 Stop 1.1 . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Stop 1.2 . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Stop 1.3 . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Stop 2 . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Stop 3 . . . . . . . . . .
3 Siliciclastic core logs description
3.1 Geological setting . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Description of core logs . . . . .
4 Carbonatic core logs description
4.1 Gela oil Reservoir . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Geological setting . . . .
4.1.2 Description of core logs .
4.1.3 Field analogue: “Dolomia
Principale” . . . . . . . .
4.2 Val d’Agri oil reservoir . . . . . .
4.2.1 Geological setting . . . .
4.3 Description of core logs . . . . .
4.3.1 Apula platform slope:
Aquila oil reservoir . . . .
1
1 Introduction
2
. 2 The 2018/2019 edition of UNIMI (“Università
. 5 degli Studi di Milano”) course of Sedimentol-
. 5 ogy and Laboratory was held from September
. 6 2017 to February 2018. The course consisted
. 7 of 48 hours of theoretical lessons on siliciclas-
tic and carbonate depositional systems and some
. 8
laboratory activities. In particular a field trip
. 10
was organized in Staffora Valley (Pavia, Lom-
bardy, Italy) and Borbera Valley (Alessandria,
12
Piedmont, Italy) aimed to observe on the field
12
facies architecture and depositional geometry
13
of turbidite and deltaic depositional systems in
the Tertiary Piedmont Basin. This exercise
14
was finalized to permit students to observe and
14
describe on the field facies characteristics and
14 then interpreting depositional environments us-
16 ing conceptual models described during theoret-
ical lessons.
19 With this same objective two more laboratory
23 activities were organized with the collaboration
23 of ENI (“Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi”). In S.
23 Donato (Milano, Italy) ENI Research Center
some core logs from ENI drilled wells were made
24 available for students, who had to describe facies

1
from these, then interpreting depositional envi-
ronments.
Note that detailed facies description on core logs
is easier to handle, because it is made in a lab-
oratory and on large polished surfaces. In the
field facies observation and description may be
harder, but it is possible in this case to observe
the meso- and macroscale facies lateral and ver-
tical variations and sediments body geometry,
that is equally important in depositional envi-
ronment interpretation.
A report on these activities is here presented.

2 Field trip in the Tertiary

Piedmont Basin - 16/03/18
The field trip was done in Staffora Valley (Pavia,
Lombardy, Italy) and Borbera Valley (Alessan- Figure 1: Geological map of Ligurian Alps and Ter-
dria, Piedmont, Italy). These valleys are ge- tiary Piedmont Basin with distribution of the main
ographically into Northern Apennines region. late Alpine faults. Ba: Bagnasco basin; Gtz: Grog-
Outcropping there are some tertiary successions nardo thrust zona; PF: Pietra di Finale; PFT: Pen-
ninic frontal thrust; Sa: Sassello basin; SL: Scrivia
part of Tertiary Piedmont Basin filling. Obser-
line; SV: Sestri-Voltaggio fault; VVL: Villarvernia-
vations and photos in this section may be from Varzi line (from Patacci et al., 2013).
other two more field trips done in the area by
the Author, one with Geological Survey Course
(06/11/2016) and another with Facies Analysis collision between Europe and Adria, the latter
Course (31/05/2017-01/06/2018). interpreted either as an indipendent plate or
as an African promontory. Plate convergence
caused the consumption of the interposed Lig-
2.1 Geological setting
urian Tethys realm and diachronous continental
The Tertiary Piedmont Basin (TPB) of NW collision occured during Eocene time (Coward
Italy developed behind the thrust front of the & Dietrich, 1989, fide Patacci et al., 2013).
Mesoalpine belt on the Adria microplate. The
TPB was a tectonically mobile, episutural basin The Alps are a double-verging pile of oceanic
that overstepped the junction between the and continental units that were partially sub-
Alpine (Ligurian Alps) and Apenninic orogenic ducted, affected by HP metamorphism, stacked
chains: Sestri-Voltaggio Lineament (Fig. 1). and exhumed before the Oligocene (Mosca et
The Alps and Apennines are considered two al., 2010, fide Patacci et al., 2013). The North-
different orogenic belts built in response to the ern Apennines are a system of NNE-verging,

2

Figure 2: Profile of TPB easternmost part. Used
acronyms from Cavanna et al., 1989; A: Antola Fly-
sch; M: Monteacuto Conglomerates; B: Bosmenso
Marls; a,s,cs,c,f: lithofacies in Ranzano Formation;
m,n: Rigoroso Marls members; G: Lower Castagnola
Formation (key beds 1 and 2); C: caotic complex
(from Di Giulio & Galbiati, 1993).
3
non-metamorphic oceanic and continental units
accreted across the western sector of Adria
during the Tertiary (Vai, 2001, fide Patacci et
al., 2013). Following the continental collision,
the juxtaposed Alpine and Apenninic units were
unconformably covered by a complex pattern
of orogen-derived sediments filling the Tertiary
Piedmont Basin. At present, Eocene-Miocene
sedimentary successions constitute much of the
hill sector of SW Piedmont and are exposed
to the south in the Monregalese, Langhe, Alto
Monferrato and Borbera-Curone sectors, and
to the north in the Monferrato and Torino Hill
sectors.
A thick sequence of predominantly terrigenous
sediments, mainly Oligocene and Miocene in age
(Forcella et al., 1999, fide Patacci et al., 2013),
were deposited during the main Alpine and
Apenninic deformation events. These sediments
rest unconformably on top of both Alpine and
Apenninic higly deformed terrains (basement
and flysch nappes that were deformed in the late
Cretaceous to late Eocene subduction phase).
The TPB was carried piggyback on the thrust
sheets that moved towards the Adriatic foreland
(late Oligocene to late Pliocene) and incorpo-
rated the succesive foredeep basins containing
the Macigno, Cervarola and Marnoso-Arenacea
Formations (Gelati & Falletti, 1996, fide Patacci
et al., 2013).
The general structure of the TPB can be
described as a broad monocline that dips gently
to the north-west under the Plio-Quaternary
cover of Po Valley (Di Giulio & Galbiati,
1993). The structural setting of these rocks
becomes considerably more complex towards
the eastern margin of the basin, where they are
involved in the late Tertiary thrusting of the
north-westernmost Apennines. The easternmost
part of the basin is truncated to the north by
the Villarvernia-Varzi Lineament, dividing it
from the Northern Apennine structure (Figg. 1,
2).

The first part of the field trip (Stops 1 and

2) focused on a small area in the easternmost
part of the TPB where there is an 3000m thick
turbidite succession, ranging from late Eocene
to early Miocene in age (Baruffini et al., 1994,
fide Patacci et al., 2013). This succession
rests unconformably on Monte Antola Flysch
(Upper Cretaceous-lower Eocene), a carbonate
hemipelagic-turbiditic unit that is a part of the
Ligurian units of Northwestern Apennines. Dur- Figure 3: Profile showing the tectonic controlled TPB
ing late Rupelian this substrate and the over- development and architecture (from Patacci et al.,
lyng rupelian sediments were deformed into a 2013).
syncline structure with E-W direction of the
axis. This structure is truncated to the north
by Villarvernia-Varzi Lineament, tectonic lin- PRIABONIAN - RUPELIAN (Di Giulio &
eament with left transpressive motion, which Galbiati, 1993).
forms a positive flower structure to the south. Rigoroso Formation: it consists of hemipelagic
From late Oligocene to erly Miocene this struc- marls with an arenaceous turbiditic body
ture was filled and onlapped by hemipelagic- (Nivione Sandstones) and lenses (Cappella
turbiditic sediments (Ibbeken, 1978, Di Giulio della Valle and Cà del Grillo Lenses) in it.
& Galbiati, 1998, fide Patacci et al., 2013; Ca- RUPELIAN - AQUITANIAN (Di Giulio &
vanna et al., 1989. Figg. 2, 3). The resultant Galbiati, 1993).
succession is divided into four stratigraphic units
(Figg. 2, 4): Castagnola Formation: it consists of three
members: Costa Grande Member, Arenaceo
Monte Piano Marls: it consists of hemipelagic Member and Monte Bruggi Marl Member.
marls. LATE EOCENE - MIDDLE The lowermost is a mud-rich turbiditic sys-
OLIGOCENE (Cavanna et al., 1989). tem with thin to thick turbidite sandstones
separated by hemipelagic mudstones. The
Ranzano Formation: it consists of a turbidite overlyng contains turbiditic beds with a
succession with mudstone-sandstone lower sandy division and an upper muddy
interbeddings laterally replaced by division. The uppermost is composed by
arenaceous-conglomeratic lenses. Into marly deposits with rare thin turbiditic bed.
this succession there are some hemipelagic AQUITANIAN (Patacci et al., 2013).
mud interbeddings (Bosmenso Marls).

4
 The second part of the trip (Stop 3) focused on
Borbera Valley Conglomerates, a succession out-
cropping in Borbera Valley, in the eastern por-
tion of the TPB. The Conglomerates are of early
Oligocene age and rest on a Ligurian substrate
(Monte Antola Flysch and Pagliaro Mudstones).
The succession is overlied by Ranzano Formation
(Gelati & Gnaccolini, 1978).

2.2 Description of the stops

2.2.1 Stop 1.1: Rigoroso Marls and
Nivione sand-body
This stop is located near Nivione (Pavia, Lom-
bardy, Italy), Cappella della Valle, on the side
of the road for Canova (SP111; 4447’55.60”N;
910’48.01”E).
Here, on an outcrop 30m high and some hun-
dreds of meters in lateral extent, there are three
overlapping lithologies. From the bottom to the
top:
• Very fine grained rock with abundant sili-
ciclastic mud, subordinate carbonate mud
(splintered fracture; slow reaction to 5 %
HCl solution) in the mud fraction, mica and
siliceous microfossils (Foramminifera) in the
siltitic subordinate fraction. The color is
dark grey in fresh fracture, light grey to
red in alteration patina. The bedding is
Figure 4: Stratigraphic column for the eastern sector visible for color changing of the alteration
of the Tertiary Piedmont Basin (from Patacci et al., patina which reflects the granulometric and
2013 carbonate content changes. Minor beds of
coarser material (fine sand) are present.
• Interbeddings of grey marls with subor-
dinate siltitic fraction (lithology described
above) and brownish sandstones with mica
and clasts of dark lithologies (ophiolites).
Alteration patina color is light grey. Sand-
stone beds are laminated (planar and cross

5

Figure 5: Stop 1.1 (Nivione, Pavia, Italy). Three
lithologies overlapped: fine siliciclastic marls (Rig-
oroso Marls), interbeddings of grey marls and sand-
stones (Rigoroso Marls), amalgamated strata of
coarse sandstones (Nivione sand-body). Note the
coarsening and thickening upward trend. Note the
badland erosional morphology in the lower part of
the outcrop (31/05/2017).
lamination) and contain Tb−e - Tc−e Bouma
sequences.
• Amalgamated strata of medium to coarse
brownish sandstones with nearly 80% lithic
clasts (mica and ophiolites rocks) with sub-
ordinate clasts of quartz and K-feldspar
(a little altered). These strata represents
amalgamated Ta Bouma sequences.
The presence of marine microfossils such as
Foramminifera reveals a marine depositional set-
ting for the succession, but the absense of large
body and trace fossils and the abundance of sili-
ciclastic material excludes a continental platform
or a distal pelagic depositional setting respec-
tively. The depositonal style must have changed
6
by the passing of time: in the lowermost part
of the succesion the deposition was dominated
by mud decantation processes on a near-slope
basin plain, with occasional deposition of distal
fan turbidite beds. In the middle of the outcrop
the increase in number of sandstone beds reveal
a progradation process of the turbidite fan sys-
tem towards the basin (distal turbidite fan). The
sandstone fraction passes from 0% at the base of
succession to nearly 70% at the top of this middle
portion, with an overall thickening and coarsen-
ing upward pattern. In the uppermost part of
the outcrop the sandstone beds become coarser,
prevalent and amalgamated (sand beds 100%):
this is the proximal fan portion of the prograd-
ing turbidite system.
Marls in the lower part of the outcrop are de-
scribed in the literature as Rigoroso Marls; the
sandstone body in the upper part is Nivione
sand-body (Cavanna et al., 1989).
The outcrop present a badland erosional mor-
phology in the lower part, dominated by marls, a
nearly vertical slope in the uppermost part dom-
inated by coarse sandstones (Fig. 5).
2.2.2 Stop 1.2: Cappella della Valle
sand-body
This stop is located near Nivione (Pavia, Lom-
bardy, Italy), Cappella della Valle, on the side
of the road for Canova (SP111), some tens of
meters onward in W direction from Stop 1.1
(4447’52.47”N; 910’44.99”E).
Outcropping here there is a huge body (nearly
30m high and 100m wide) of medium to coarse
sandstone strata. The sandstones are com-
posed of prevailing lithic fragments (ophiolite
lithologies with prevailing serpentinite) with
subordinate mineral fragments (clorite, quartz
and glaucophane) and mudclasts (maximum
15cm diamiter wide, with abundant coccolith
shells). The cement is a calcitic poikilitic one,
occupying some 20% of the rock; some clasts
are covered by authigenic clay.1 Sandstones are
mainly structurless, medium-fine grained, and
beds are amalgamated, with pockets of coarser
grained sand along the amalgamation surfaces.
Some amalgamation surfaces can be followed
across the entire width of the outcrop, showing
distinct change from the axis toward the margin
of the channel where amalgamation is less
prevailing. In the eastern portion of the outcrop
Figure 6: Stop 1.2 (Nivione, Pavia, Italy). Cappella
it is visible the contact between the sandstone
della Valle sand-body with diagenetic ball shaped
body and Rigoroso Marls: it is a sharp erosional concretions (16/03/2018).
disconformity contact. The sandstone body
onlap on the contact. The facies and geometry
of the body reveals its nature of sandstones fill lithic clasts (ophiolite lithologies are composed
of a deep incisional cut (turbiditic channel) into of paramagnetic minerals) reflected by the
the mudstone sequence of Rigoroso Formation. aligment of magnetic susceptibily ellipsoids.
This is the Cappella della Valle sand-body This aligment testifies paleocurrent direction:
(Cavanna et al., 1989; Patacci et al., 2013). in fact prolate rolling clasts tend to settle
On the outcrop surface there are some dia- perpendicular to the currrent direction.
genetic ball shaped concretions grown around
small mud clasts. The mud clasts in fact acts
as nuclei for the concretions to grow, as they 2.2.3 Stop 1.3: Cappella della Valle
causes some void to create in the sand-body, as sand-body - erosive base
their carbonate fraction dissolve, which sucks
carbonate-rich fluids from it, causing early This stop is located near Nivione (Pavia,
sands cementation. In this way are around mud Lombardy, Italy), Cappella della Valle, some
clasts result more competent and stand out tens of meters down the ravine next to Stop
the outcrop. Ball shape reflects the isotropic 1.2 (4447’51.43”N; 910’45.32”E). This stop
distribution of porosity (Fig. 6). allows the observation of the basal surface of
the channel seen at the previous stop. The
surface is characterized by spectacular dm-sized
FOCUS : paleomagnetic analysis on Cappella flute casts that record paleocurrents toward the
della Valle sand-body reveals an alignment of E-NE (Fig. 7). Sandstones are coarse grained
(up to granules) and contain abundant large
1
Clay coverage may prevent cement precipitation, thus
(tens of centimeters) mainly elongated mud
preserving rock porosity. This process is typical of some clasts which are usually deposited a few tens of
high porosity sandstone reservoirs. centimeters above the fluted surface.

7

Figure 7: Stop 1.3 (Nivione, Pavia, Italy). Large
flute casts at the base of Cappella della Valle channel.
Elongated mudstone clasts in cross section can also
be observed (16/03/2018).
One steep margin is preserved and part of its
fill, which is mostly composed of mudstone clast
breccias.
These observations confirm Cappella della
Valle sand-body as a turbiditic channel fill,
with coarse sandstone amalgamated strata (Ta
Bouma sequences) filing a deep incisional cut
into hemipelagic marls of Rigoroso Formation.
2.2.4 Stop 2: Castagnola Turbidite
System
This stop is located near Nivione (Pavia, Lom-
bardy, Italy), north-west to Fontana di Nivione
(4448’43.83”N; 910’49.05”E).
The area is characterized by the widespread
outcropping of Rigoroso Marls, resulting in a
badland morphology. Marls are here more caotic
and deformed than in Stop 1.1 , with massive
structure (bedding barely visible) and folds.
Various caotic-disposed spots of different colors
(shades of gray) attest the diffusive deformation
8
and caotic structure of the Marls.
To the east the area is closed by a higher
morphology on which side it is visible the con-
tact between Rigoroso Marls and the overlying
Castagnola Formation (Costa Grande Member).
Castagnola Formation sandstones banks onlap
over Rigoroso Marls to the north (Fig. 8) and
it is not tectonically deformed (folds are limited
to Rigoroso Marls). This features are the result
of the tectonic activity related to left-lateral
transpressive motion along the Villarvernia-
Varzi fault, witch acted in two major Oligocene
steps: the Rupelian phase conditioned the
deposition of the Ranzano Formation turbidite
system. The subsequent Chattian/Aquitanian
phase folded and faulted this succession, during
sedimentation of Rigoroso Marls, controlling
the deposition of Castagnola Formation. A
positive flower structure was formed (Figg. 2,
3) during this stage; this structure uplifted the
northern boundary of a subsiding syncline area,
in which the turbidite systems of the Castag-
nola Formation were deposited, with marked
pinch-outs towards the northern uplifting basin
margin. This resulted in onlap terminations of
the sandstone bodies (Patacci et al., 2013).
Onlap terminations of sandstone bodies on a
marlstones-made slope is a classic example of a
stratigraphic trap. Sandstones banks are in fact
good reservoir-rocks. This banks are sealed lat-
erally by slope marlstones, above by hemipelagic
mud.
Hemipelagic mud caps are intercalated with tur-
bidite sandstone bodies in all of the forma-
tion. During the previous field trip in the area
(31/05/2017; Course of Facies Analysis) out-
crop observation of the turbidite succession in
Costa Grande Member of Castagnola Forma-
tion was done some 2 Km east to the Stop,
Figure 8: Valle di Nivione, Pavia, Lombardy, Italy.
Onlap terminations of sandstone banks in Costa
Grande Member, Castagnola Fm. (yellow lines) on
Rigoroso Marls slope (red line). Note badland mor-
phology of marls outcrop (4/11/2016).
Figure 9: Valle di Nivione, Pavia, Lombardy, Italy.
Castagnola Fomation (Costa Grande Member): tur-
bitide strata with very thick mud caps due to basin tinue its flow further away from the source area.
confinement (31/05/2017).
Figure 10: Valle di Nivione, Pavia, Lombardy,
Italy. Castagnola Fomation (Costa Grande Member):
amalgamated turbitide sandstone strata (Ta Bouma
sequences) with very thin mud caps on the top of the
succession (31/05/2017).
north to Valle di Nivione. Here the sequence
was made of coarse sandstone banks (10 cm to
1 m thick) with Ta -Tb Bouma sequences struc-
ture overlied by very thick hemipelagic mud caps
(2-3 m thick). Mud caps thickness is not con-
gruent with the thickness of sandstone banks.
This is an evidence of a “fill and spill” basin,
a ponded basin in which turbidite currents are
trapped, thus releasing all of their sediment load,
also the mud, in the middle of the basin (Fig.
9). On the top of the turbite succession mud
caps are considerably thinner: the almost com-
pleted filling of the basin results in the morpho-
logical trap to disappear, allowing mud to con-
This results in amalgamated sandstone banks
with Ta Bouma sequences structure (Fig. 10).
So Castagnola Formation turbite succession is a
9
Figure 11: Stop 3 (Strette di Pertuso, Alessandria,
Italy). Entering of Borbera gorge near Pertuso: the
first steep walls coincide with the first conglomerates
outcrop (01/06/2017). Figure 12: Stop 3 (Strette di Pertuso, Alessandria,
Italy). Borbera Conglomerates. Note the shear de-
formation zone (01/06/2017).
thickening and coarsening upward one. This is
usual for tectonic-related basins.

2.2.5 Stop 3: Val Borbera Conglomer-

ates
This stop is located near Pertuso (Alessandria,
Piedmont, Italy) in a sector of Borbera Valley
called “Strette di Pertuso”, between Pertuso and
Persi (4443’22.61”N; 9 1’24.70”E).
Borbera flows along a wide and open territory
characterized by gentle hills since it enters in
the territory of the conglomerate succession: at
that point it enters in a narrow river gorge in-
cised into the conglomerates. The gorge is al- Figure 13: Stop 3 (Strette di Pertuso, Alessandria,
most 100m deep. That is a clear geomorpho- Italy). Fine sandstone interbeddings in Borbera Con-
glomerates. Parallel lamination at the bottom is vis-
logical proxy: previous the entering in the gorge
ible. Note laminae inclination (01/06/2017).
Borbera flows in a territory which substrate is
less competent (Ranzano Sandstones according
to Gelati & Gnaccolini, 1978) than the conglom-

10

Figure 14: Sandstone interbeddings in Borbera Con-
glomerates succession: type sequence (from Gelati &
Gnaccolini, 1978).
Figure 15: Depositional environments of Oligocene
successions in Val Borbera sector. Borbera Gylbert-
type deltaic body progrades towards Ranzano
hemipelagic depositional basin (from Gelati & Gnac-
colini, 1978).
11
erates (Fig. 11).
The conglomerates are composed of clasts rang-
ing in size between some mm and 1-2m (medium
sand to boulders); the gravel component is sub-
stantially prevalent. The cement is calcitic.
Clasts are rounded-subrounded, with equant and
oblate shape. There is 80% carbonate clasts
(mostly marls and carbonate mudstones), 10%
sandstones and 10% serpentinite, jasper and
other ophiolithic lithologies. Strata are present
but barely visible, W dipping with an angle near
45o (Fig. 12). The succession has a thickness of
2500m (Gelati & Gnaccolini, 1978).
In the upper part of the succession, toward W,
some fine sandstone interbeddings are present.
At the base they have a coarse lag of aligned
cobbles and boulders with borings interpreted
as made by bivalve molluscs (such as Lithophaga
today; Gelati & Gnaccolini, 1978). The sands
are very fine with parallel lamination at the bot-
tom and wave ripple cross lamination at the top
(Figg. 13, 14). Some marine trace and body
fossils are present (Bivalvia, Gastropoda etc.).
Borings by molluscs and wave ripples reveal a
shallow water marine depositional setting for the
succession. Basal lags are interpreted as due to
wave washing of the coarse sand-gravel sediment
body and the superimposed sandstone strata as
shoreface sediments (Gelati & Gnaccolini, 1978).
It is also interesting to note that as shoreface sed-
imentation occurs nearly on horizontal surfaces,
since strata in the fine sandstone interbeddings
have a W dipping near 40o angle, there had to
be some tectonic tilting. Since conglomerates
are gently unconformable to sandstones strata,
their sedimentation had to occur on clinoforms
dipping W some 5o .
At the top of the succession (near Persi, at the
end of Borbera gorge) ophiolithic clasts are far
more abundant than carbonate ones. Consider-
ing the source succession as to be an ophiolithic
one, this is a case of “stratigraphic reversal”: at
the base of the succession we find more abun-
dant clasts deriving from the top of the source
succession (marls and calcitic mudstones), at the
top of it the ones from the bottom of the source
(jasper and ultramaphic rocks).
Seen all of the evidences it is clear this conglom-
eratic succession to be an alluvial fan delta sys-
tem with a very proximal source area as reflected
by clasts size: Gylbert-type delta fan (Nichols,
2009). This fan was at the margin of a rising
apenninic continental zone to the E (with ophi-
olitic lithologies) and was dipping and prograd-
ing toward the hemipelagic basin of sedimen-
tation of Ranzano Formation (Fig. 15). Oc-
casional interruptions of the alluvional deposi-
tional process permit the shore sediment bodies
to form (Gelati & Gnaccolini, 1978).
3 Ghana siliciclastic core-logs
description - 26/01/18
Ghana government began to sell offshore
exploration and production licenses in 2004.
ENI acquired license for Offshore Cape Three
Points Block in 2009 (along with Vital Ghana
Upstream and Ghana National Petroleum)
and began exploration. In 2016 ENI Ghana
Exploration & Production finished to drill 18
wells in the block. By 2017 Sankofa East Field
and Gye Name Field started oil production, by
2018 gas production. Fields are located some
60Km offshore the western ghanian coast (Fig.
16).
12
Figure 16: In green: Cape Three Points Block, with
oil and gas fields Sankofa East and Gye Name (mod-
ified from www.offshoreenergytoday.com).
3.1 Geological setting
(From Brownfield & Charpentier (2006) - Geol-
ogy and Total Petroleum Systems of the Gulf of
Guinea Province of West Africa. U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey Bulletin 2207-C).
“The Gulf of Guinea formed at the culmina-
tion of Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous tecton-
ism that was characterized by both block and
transform faulting superimposed across an ex-
tensive Paleozoic basin during breakup of the
African, North American and South American
paleocontinents (Fig. 17). Thus the province
has undergone a complex history, which is di-
vided into pre-trasform (late Proterozoic to Late
Jurassic), syn-transform (Late Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous) and post-transform (Late Creta-
ceous to Holocene) stages of basin development.
The structural basins within the province are
aligned generally east-west, with boundaries de-
limited by an east-west transform fault system
and north-south structural arches.
The three stages tectonic evolution in the Gulf of
Guinea Province allows the stratigraphic section
to be divided into three main sequences:

Figure 17: Paleogeographic stages in the separation the described depth interval is between 3644
of Africa and South America during the Cretaceous and 3637m. Core logs description follows (for
(from Brownfield & Charpentier, 2006).
• Precambrian to Triassic intracratonic rocks
and Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous continen-
tal to marginal marine rocks representing
the pre-transform stage;
• Lower Cretaceous to latest Albian rocks rep-
resenting the syn-transform stage;
• Cenomanian to Holocene rocks representing
the post-transform stage.
Oil and gas occurences in the Gulf of Guinea
Province are concentrated in Cretaceous reser-
voirs on the continental shelf and adjacent on-
shore extensions. Main source rocks are black
shales in the Ivory and Tano Basins deposited
during anoxic oceanic conditions that character-
ized the middle Cretaceous wordlwide as well
as the Gulf of Guinea during the Cenomanian.
Note that the final breakup of Africa and South
America began in the Late Jurassic in the south-
ernmost part of the south Atlantic and pro-
graded northward during Neocomian time. The
area now occupied by the Gulf of Guinea opened
13
last, forming a continuous anoxic seaway in the
late Albian to Turonian (Fig. 17). A continu-
ous oxic Atlantic Ocean existed by the end of
the Santonian. Oil has also been produced from
Devonian to Carboniferous Takoradi Formation
sandstones sourced from Devonian shales in the
Saltpond field.”
3.2 Description of core logs
The described core logs are from a well in Off-
shore Cape Three Points oil Field. In particular
core logs representation see attached Table 1):
from 3644 to 3643,40m
Breccia with clasts ranging in size from sand
to cobbles. Clasts are subangular and equant.
Granular support with linear contacts between
clasts. Very poorly sorted. Massive structure.
Mineralized.
from 3643,40 to 3642,40m
Breccia with clasts ranging in size from sand
to pebbles. Clasts are subangular and equant;
mudclasts are present at the top. Granular
support with linear contacts between clasts.
Poorly sorted at the base, moderately sorted at
the top. Massive structure with normal grading.
Differential cementation: some darker spots are
present due to more oil in the pores; these areas
are thus more porous due to lesser cementation
occured. Mineralized.
from 3642,40 to 3641m
Breccia with clasts ranging in size from sand
to pebbles. Clasts are subangular and equant.
Granular support with linear contacts between
clasts. Poorly sorted at the base, moderately
sorted at the top. Massive structure with
normal grading . Differential cementation: some
darker spots are present due to more oil in the
pores; these areas are thus more porous, due to
lesser cementation occured. Mineralized.
from 3641 to 3640m
Breccia with clasts ranging in size from sand
to cobbles. Clasts are subangular and equant.
Granular support with linear contacts between
clasts. Poorly sorted at the base. Massive
structure. Differential cementation: some
darker spots are present due to more oil in the
pores; these areas are thus more porous, due to
lesser cementation occured. Mineralized.
from 3640 to 3638m
Breccia with clasts ranging in size from sand
to pebbles. Clasts are subangular and equant.
Granular support with linear contacts between
clasts. Poorly sorted at the base, moderately
sorted at the top. Massive structure with
normal grading . Differential cementation: some
darker spots are present due to more oil in the
pores; these areas are thus more porous, due to
lesser cementation occured. Mineralized.
from 3638 to 3637,14m
Breccia with clasts ranging in size from sand
to pebbles. Clasts are subangular and equant.
Granular support with linear contacts between
clasts. Poorly sorted at the base, moderately
sorted at the top. Massive structure with
inverse grading . Differential cementation: some
darker spots are present due to more oil in the
pores; these areas are thus more porous, due to
lesser cementation occured. Mineralized. Gela oil Reservoir is located offshore south-east
Sicily (Italy). This sector is the W side of
from 3637,14 to 3637m Hyblean plateau, part of the Apenninic foreland
Breccia with clasts ranging in size from sand subducing under the orogenic belt to the north
14
to pebbles. Clasts are subangular and equant.
Granular support with linear contacts between
clasts. Moderately sorted. Massive structure
with inverse grading. Mineralized.
The described succession was deposited on a
continental slope - continental rise environment
(information from geological setting studies of
the area conducted by ENI geologists). The suc-
cession consists of some massive strata with nor-
mal grading and very coarse sized clasts: these
are probably amalgamated strata of very coarse
material settled in a proximal setting by a sub-
marine landslide. Eventually, these landslides
may evolved into turbidite currents on the dis-
tal slope thus depositing sediment bodies with
classical Bouma sequences structures. The de-
scribed facies were interpreted as F2 facies (most
proximal and massive one) using Mutti classifi-
cation scheme for continental slopes submarine
landslides related facies (Mutti et al., 2003; Fig.
18).
4 Carbonatic core logs
description - 19/01/18
4.1 Gela oil Reservoir
Gela oil Reservoir was discovered in 1956 and
is extended onshore as offshore. Oil is present
between 3150 and 3517m under the surface.
4.1.1 Geological setting
 Figure 19: Hydrocarbons occurences in different
structural and tectonics settings (from Fantoni ey al.,
2008).

(Figg. 19, 21; Frixa et al., 2000).

The main oil reserves are in Gela Formation

(or “Sciacca Formation” as it is called in
the onshore outcropping areas; Antonelli et
al., 1988, fide Frixa et al., 2000). This is a
Figure 18: Facies and inferred processes with an ideal
bipartite turbidity current and flat axial zone of a carbonate platform dating from upper Carnian
foredeep basin (from Mutti et al., 2003). to Norian that extended to the all Hyblean
foreland (“Hyblean platform”). It consists of
inner platform perytidal cycles with subtidal
facies with algae and molluscs, intertidal fa-

15
cies dominated by microbial boundstones and
supratidal facies; margin facies charactherized
by microbial boundstones. Despite all of the
platform is dolomitized, the original texture is
well preserved. Hydrothermal karst phenom-
ena occured (hydrotermal fluids related with
Apenninic orogeny), creating some dissolution
breccias and secondary porosity. The succession
is 4800m thick (Frixa et al., 2000).
During late Norian Hyblean platform was
drowned due to tectonic subsidence of the area.
Subsidence was more intense in the pelagic
basin area than in the platform one, leading to
the differentiation of the style of sedimentation
for the two areas (Frixa et al., 2000; Figg. 20,
21).
In the platform area an euxinic lagoon settles
in, leading to the deposition of Noto Formation
(Rhaetian). This consists of decimetric to
metric interbeddings of locally dolomitized,
thinly laminated mudstones/wackestones with
ostracods and plant debris, and laminated
black shales rich in organic matter. At the
Noto-Sciacca Formations boundary, dolomitic
breccias and slumping phenomena are often
present; these testify to episodes of instability
of the sedimentation environment. Noto Forma-
tion is some 200m thick (Frixa et al., 2000).
In the basin area the intense subsidence and
tectonization resulted in the deposition of
a thick series (more than 2500m) of euxinic
basinal environment: Streppenosa Formation.
This is divided into three members: Lower,
Middle and Upper Members. The Middle Mem-
ber (Rhaetian; 2000m thick) is characterized
by prevailing silty micritic limestones (mud-
stones/wackestones), turbiditic fine calcarenites,
dark grey and green silty shales, with interbed-
dings of quartzose siltstones and volcanic rocks.
16
The average percentage of dolomite ranges
between 6% and 9% (Frixa et al., 2000).
At the margin of the two Rhaetian domains
there is a narrow, tectonically controlled
ridge, consisting of completely recrystallized
or dolomitized mounds (microbial mats, stro-
matoliths, laminated mudstones), laminated
carbonates and associated breccias. This is the
Mila Member of the Noto Formation (Frixa et
al., 2000).
At the Rhaetian-Hettangian boundary the
transgression of the basinal euxinic sediments of
the Upper Member of Streppenosa Formation
affected the Hyblean domain. This Member
(300m thick) is more argillaceous than the
underlying one; it is made up of grey-greenish,
silty to slightly silty shale and mudstones, with
levels of quartzose siltstones, basaltic lava and
fine, resedimented packstones with elements of
carbonate shallow platform (Frixa et al., 2000).
Minor oil reserves are in Noto Formation (inner
platform and slope facies). Source rocks are
the ones from Streppenosa Formation (basin
facies): Upper Member is source and sill for the
underlying reservoir.
4.1.2 Description of core logs
The described core logs are from Gela 87DIR
Well. In particular the described depth interval
is between 3401 and 3405m. Note that in
Gela oil Field oil is present at a depth interval
between 3150 and 3517m. Core logs description
follows (for core logs representation see attached
Table 2).
from 3405 to 3404,94m
Dolo-rudstone (breccia) with dolomitized
carbonate lithoclasts. Excellent porosity (inter-
 particle and fractures). Mineralized.

from 3404,94 to 3404,90m

Dolo-packstone with excellent porosity (inter-
particle and fractures). Mineralized.

from 3404,90 to 3404,70m

Dolo-mudstone with moderate to fair porosity
(fractures). Mineralized.

from 3404,70 to 3404,38m

Microbial dolo-boundstone with stromatoliths.
Tight to negiglible porosity (fractures and
cemented fenestrae on the top of level; Fig. 23).

Figure 20: Schematic reconstruction of the Noto-

from 3404,38 to 3404,30m
Streppenosa domains during Norian-Hettangian Dolo-wackestone. Tight to negiglible porosity
times (from Frixa et al., 2000). (fractures and fenestrae).

from 3404,30 to 3404,20m

Dolo-mudstone. Tight to negiglible porosity.

from 3404,20 to 3404m

Dolo-rudstone (breccia) with dolomiscaletized
carbonate lithoclasts. Excellent porosity (inter-
particle and fractures).

from 3404 to 3402m

Core logs for this interval are absent.

from 3402 to 3401,80m

Dolo-mudstone with some stromatoliths. Good
Figure 21: Location of the Gela Field drilled cores porosity (fractures). Mineralized.
and depositional model interpretation of the peritidal
platform Sciacca Fm. and the Mila Member micro-
from 3402,80 to 3402,48m
bial mounds. Section A-A’ is located in Gela oil field
(from Della Porta, 2018).
Microbial dolo-boundstone with stromatoliths.
Tight to negiglible porosity.

from 3401,48 to 3401,23m

Black shale. Tight to negiglible porosity. Min-

17
Figure 22: Gela 87DIR Well (from 3401,48 to
3401,23m). Black shales with bitumen (photo by A.
Dimartino).

eralized (probable source rock; Fig. 22).

Figure 23: Gela 87DIR Well, Sciacca Formation. Mi-
crobial dolo-boundstones with stromatoliths (photo
from 3401,23 to 3401m by A. Dimartino).
Dolo-mudstone. Excellent porosity (fractures).
Mineralized.

The described dolomitized succession is part

of Gela Formation (main oil reservoir in the
field). Presence of fenestrae and microbial
boundstones (peritidal cycles) testifies of a
platform depositional environment.

18
 passive margin, dominated by syn-sedimentary
tectonics leading to the opening of the Jurassic
Alpine Tethys. Tectonic disturbance of the
platform buildup is testified by the development
of intraplatform basins (5-30Km wide) in witch
were deposited successions consistent of well
bedded, fine crystaline, dark limestones and
rare organic-rich, laminated marly limestones
and dolomitized platform derived resedimented
calciturbidites and breccias (Zorzino Limestone
and Dolomie Zonate of the Aralalta Group;
Figure 24: Paleogeographic reconstruction of the
intraplatform basins within the Dolomia Principale Della Porta, 2018).
platform. Field trip locality is near point 5 (from
Della Porta, 2018).
. In order to observe and compare facies de-
scribed in Gela cores with the ones from Dolo-
mia Principale, a field trip was done on the
4.1.3 A field analogue: “Dolomia Princi-
20/04/2018 on the eastern side of Lake Iseo
pale” in Lombard Basin
(Brescia, Lombardy, Italy). This side is in fact
In order to characterize at best a subsurface characterized by an important outcrop of the DP
oil reservoir it is pivotal to study at least one succession (Fig. 24). The original depositional
“field analogue”. An analogue is an onshore facies are visible and recognizable despite the
outcropping succession with geometrical, genet- dolomitization process, thought it was not too
ical and sedimentological characteristics similar much strong.
to that of the subsurface reservoir. Studying The observed facies were, from the top to the
analogues provides informations about the 3D base of the studied succession (Table 3):
architecture of the facies assemblages in the
• FACIES I: Dolo-rudstone. Massive rock
depositional system very useful to interpret how
composed by large (0,5 to 30cm) clasts
facies visible in core logs (1D) assemble in the
in a dolomitized light grey sparite matrix.
other two directions. Analogues are also very
Clasts range in roundness from angular-
useful to interpret seismic lines.
subangular (largest ones) to subrounded-
A good field analogue for Gela oil Reservoir
rounded (smallest ones), in shape from
is Dolomia Principale Formation in Lombard
oblate (largest ones) to equant (smallest
Basin (Frixa et al., 2000). This is a thick dolomi-
ones). Clasts are mainly of dolo-packstones
tized carbonate platform (maximum thickness
similar to the ones present below. The rock
nearly 2000m) representing most of the western
is grain-supported. It is a monogenic car-
Southern Alps upper Carnian-Norian interval
bonate dolomitized breccia deposited in a
(Lombard Basin). The Triassic-Jurassic sed-
subtidal slope environment (Fig. 25).
imentary successions of the Lombard Basin
records the earliest stages of the evolution of a • FACIES II: Microbial Dolo-boundstone.

19
 Massive dolomitized rock composed by fine
carbonate sediment bounded by microbial
mats. Microbial laminae (stromatoliths)
are abundant with different geometries:
wavy lamination, horizontal planar lami-
nation, subvertical planar-wavy lamination
etc. Cavities filled with dolomitized cement
are present (Fig. 26). These rocks represent
a marginal depositional environment.

• FACIES III: Microbial Dolo-boundstone

and Dolo-rudstone with bioclasts. Massive
to badly bedded dolomitized rock composed
by fine carbonate sediment bounded by
microbial mats (stromatoliths are present)
with lenses of dolo-rudstones very rich in
bioclasts: molluscs (Bivalvia and Gas-
teropoda), brachiopods (Brachiopoda) and
serpulid worms (Serpulidae). Lenses are ap-
proximately composed by monospecific ben-
thic fauna assemblages. Strata dip towards
200◦ with an angle of 70◦ with the horizon.
The succession is not overturned, as testi-
fied by geopetal fillings of the fossils. These Figure 25: Facies I: Dolo-rudstone (Dolomia Princi-
sediments were deposited in a subtidal dis- pale, Iseo Lake).
tal platform environment (Fig. 27).

• FACIES IV: Dolo-packstone/grainstone. grains in micritic or sparite matrix. Some

Bedded dolomitized rock (strata 2-15cm levels present fenestrae, sheet and subver-
thick) with arenite and silt size grains in tical cracks filled by dolomitized calcite
micritic or sparite matrix. Small levels of cements. Stromatoliths may be present.
aligned bioclasts may be present at the base Strata dip towards 195◦ with an angle of
of some strata. Oncoids are present as well. 65◦ with the horizon. These are peritidal
Strata dip towards 195◦ with an angle of cycles sediments deposited in an inner plat-
65◦ with the horizon. These sediments were form environment (Fig. 28).
deposited in a subtidal distal platform envi-
ronment. This succession represents a vertical section
into a retrograding carbonate flat topped shelf
• FACIES V: Dolo-packstone/grainstone with (Table 3), with inner platform facies covered by
fenestrae. Bedded dolomitized rock (strata distal platform ones, then by a microbial bound-
2-15cm thick) with arenite and silt size stone margin and a slope. The retrogradation of

20
 Figure 27: Facies III: Lense of dolo-rudstone with
bioclasts. Note geopetal fillings in brachiopod shells
(Dolomia Principale, Iseo Lake).

Figure 26: Facies II: Microbial boundstone with stro-

matholiths (Dolomia Principale, Iseo Lake).

Figure 28: Facies V: Dolo-packstone with fenestrae

(Dolomia Principale, Iseo Lake).

21
 the shelf was due to a sea transgression related
with synsedimentary tectonic subsidence of
Lombard Basin (Della Porta, 2018).
This shelf was dominated by a biotic association
composed by microbes, molluscs, brachiopods
and serpulid worms. This is a heterozoan
association (Nichols, 2009): the microbial
buildups around the platform margins have
been interpreted as an ecological adaptation
to restricted and stressed conditions of the
intraplatform basins developed during the late
Norian rifting in the westernmost Tethys. In
fact at the same time the northern margin of the
platform, now Austrian Dachstein Formation,
showed open marine margins with coral reefs
(Cirilli et al., 1999, fide Della Porta, 2018).
The succession was later tectonically tilted,
as testified by strata inclination and geopetal
fillings in the fossils. The described outcrop
presents also post-dolomitization fractures
filled with calcitic cement and recent subaerial
speleothems.

The described succession is clearly very simi-

Figure 29: Restricted lagoon platform facies from the
Gela Field Noto Fm. (from Della Porta, 2018).
lar to Gela oil Reservoir one. In particular the
upper part of Gela Triassic succession consists of
an inner platform facies assemblage (Noto For-
mation) very similar to Facies V; this is the main
upper oil reservoir, which contains oil in fenes-
trae and sheet cracks. These cavities in Noto
Fm. are not filled by cement as it happens in
Dolomia Principale: in fact in Noto Fm. there
is just an isopachous marine cement filling the
voids, while in Dolomia Principale there is also
a burial one (Fig. 29). Distal platform facies
into Noto Formation are similar to Facies IV and
are good source rocks (restricted lagoon environ-
ment). Mila Member of Noto Fm. represents a
microbial mounds margin very similar to Facies

22
II. stones/rudstones with shells accumulations of
Although not seen during the field trip, there molluscs of the order Hippuritoida in them,
is a clear similarity between Streppenosa For- deposited in shallow water margin or plat-
mation of Gela succession and Dolomia Princi- form patch reefs environments. In the
pale related basinal deposits. These are sedi- middle of the succession there are some
ments from Aralalta Group (Dolomie Zonate and mudstones/wackestones with subordinate pack-
Zorzino Limestone, coeval and heteropic with stones/grainstones with abundant microfossils
the platform; source rocks) and Riva di Solto (Ciclina, Foramminifera). This deposits re-
Shales. The latter is an argillaceous succession sulted from the drowning of the rudistids com-
that marks the death of the platform, related to munities following a transgressive event. Bari
climatic changes, such as increased rainfall that Limestones are early Albian to late Cenomanian
favoured the fluvial delivery of fine siliciclasticsin age (Pieri et al., 2010); major anoxic peak oc-
from continental areas. Carbonate production cured during the Albian-Cenomanian time and
decreased as a consequence of the large silici- led to the formation of the main source rocks
clastic influx and the decreased salinity, related (Fantoni et al., 2008). The succession is some
to the input of large masses of fresh water (Della 500m thick (Pieri et al., 2010).
Porta, 2018). Riva di Solto Shale is an impor- All of this succession is sealed by Scaglia pelagic
tant source rock as well as Streppenosa Forma- mudstone sediments (Upper Creataceous to Pa-
tion does. leocene; Pieri et al., 2010).
Oil is contained in rudistids limestones, that
present fenestrae and intraparticle porosity.
4.2 Val d’Agri oil reservoir
Karst phenomena occured (this is typical for
Val d’Agri oil reservoir (Potenza, Basilicata, shallow water carbonate platform) creating some
Italy) was discovered in 1981, with the drilling of secondary porosity in the reservoir.
Molina 1 Well. Today it is the most important
italian oil reservoir. 4.3 Description of core logs

4.2.1 Geological setting The described core logs are from Monte Alpi
Nord 1 Well. In particular the described depth
The reservoir is the Apulian Platform succes- interval is between 3375 and 3373m. Core logs
sion, a Cenomanian carbonate platform in au- description follows (for core logs representation
tochtonous position under the allochton Apen- see attached Table 4):
ninic orogenic structure (“Bari Limestone”
where it outcrops to the east, in the Bari sec- from 3375 to 3374,70m
tor; Pieri et al., 2010; Fig. 19). The plat- Rudstone with abundant bioclasts. Bioclasts are
form consisted of a carbonate distally steepened rudists (Hippuritoida). Stylolites are present.
ramp dominated by molluscs and Foramminifera Porosity tight to negiglible (intraparticle).
(Pieri et al., 2010).
At the base and top of the succession from 3374,70 to 3374m
there are some “rudistids limestones”, float- Floatstone with bioclasts. Bioclasts are rudists

23
(Hippuritoida). Stylolites are present. Porosity
tight to negiglible (intraparticle).

from 3374 to 3373,50m

Mudstone with cemented fenestrae. Porosity
tight to negiglible.

from 3373,50 to 3373,35m

Rudstone with abundant bioclasts. Bioclasts are
rudists (Hippuritoida). Stylolites are present.
Porosity tight to negiglible (intraparticle).

from 3373,35 to 3373m

Floatstone with bioclasts. Bioclasts are rudists
(Hippuritoida). Stylolites are present. Porosity
tight to negiglible (intraparticle).

The described dolomitized succession is part

of Bari Limestone Formation (main oil reservoir
in the field). Described facies are from Apula
platform margin.

4.3.1 Apula platform slope:

Aquila oil reservoir
Figure 30: Tectonic setting of Apula platform in
Apulian Platform was very largerly extended Sout-East Italy. Val d’Agri oil reservoir is located
and it covered a large portion of South Italy in in the SW part of the platform under the Apenninic
units. Aquila oil field is located in Adriatic sea off-
the Cenomanian. While the main portion of the
shore, in the NE part of the platform, in the slope
platform is now below the Appennininc orogenic sector (from Jacquemyn et al., 2012).
structure, its western slope is now in the Adri-
atic offshore. Into this slope an oil reservoir was
discovered in 1993: Aquila oil reservoir (Otranto
channel; Figg. 19, 30). The reservoir is con-
tained into a channel-fill succession formed by
two formations:

Monte Sant’Angelo Formation: it consists of

carbonate breccias with a white carbonate

24
 matrix; locally it consists of a grainstone.
Blocks (some cm to dm wide) are made of
rudistids rudstones from the platform. Rud-
istids fragments are also present in the ma-
trix. The Formation was partially dolomi-
tized. This is the main reservoir rock, with
a 5% - 12 % porosity and a good permeabil-
ity.
Monte Acuto Formation: it overlies the pre-
vious one; the boundary is nonconformal,
with locally angular unconformity. It con-
sists of mudstones/wackestones with in-
terbedded layers of packstones/grainstones
made of rudistids bioclasts. Abundant
planctonic Foramminifera. Locally there
are carbonate breccias in lenses with blocks
of grainstones and wackestones/packstones
with rudistids and echinoids bioclasts. The
age is Turonian-Santonian, the thickness
55m (in Gargano outcroppings; Pampaloni,
1999). It is also a reservoir.
This succession is sealed by Scaglia pelagic
mudstone, that covered the all of the drowned
Apulian platform (Upper Creataceous to Pale-
ocene).
Mineralization of the channel fill succession
occurred during Miocene age. The source rocks
are underlyng Triassic carbonate sequences that
were deposited during the anoxic stage that
preceeded the spread out of the Jurassic basins,
main phase of the Tethyan rifting (Fantoni et
al., 2008).
Core logs from this oil field, in particular from
Aquila 2 Well, were observed but not described
by the Author during the laboratory activity.
25
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