High-Quality Tool Steel

Hot Forming and Heat Treatment

2
 CONTENTS

HOT FORMING
4
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
HEAT TREATMENT 6
TYPES OF HEAT
TREATMENT 14

3
 Hot Forming
FORGING
For each steel the temperature range within which forging
must be carried out is stated.
The pieces to be forged must slowly be brought to the initial
forging temperature. This has to be considered even more
the higher the steel is alloyed, as the heat conductivity
decreases normally with the alloying content. If heating is
carried out too fast, internal cracks and other defects can
occur.
Forging must be finished roughly near the minimum tem-
perature stated. The initial forging temperature should be
coordinated with this. If the required minimum temperature
is reached before finishing the forging process, re-heating
must be carried out.
4
After forging, practically all hot-work steels must be cooled
slowly to avoid tension cracks.
For high-alloyed and thus very transformation-resistant
steels a special preliminary heat treatment may become
necessary. For this, the pieces are to be caught at 500 to
550 °C coming from the forging operation and to be
charged into a furnace which is at the temperature equal
to the shortest pearlite transformation time (pearlite nose)
in the isothermal TTT (time-temperature-transformation)
diagram. The holding time is to be determined 3 or 4 times
as long as stated in the TTT diagram.
 HOT FORMING
WORKING ALLOWANCE
Hot forming leads to a certain scaling and decarburization Concerning the suppliable types of design, the following can
on the steel surface. Moreover, minor surface defects, such be distinguished:
as pits, grooves and others, may remain. So as to avoid • Rolled or forged
insufficient surface hardness of the tools or heat treatment • Rough-machined
cracks, it is advisable to carry out chip machining prior to • Micro-finished
hardening.
The ordering dimensions for bars in rolled or forged as well
For ordering, the relevant material allowances must there- as rough-machined condition may be taken from DIN EN
fore be taken into consideration. The ordering dimension, ISO 4957.
the dimension defined by the customer, is dependent on
the finished dimension, i.e. the intended dimension of the It is acceptable for finished machined bars to deviate from
tool after finish-machining as well as the type of design. customers ordering dimension according to DIN EN 10278.

5
 Basic Principles of Heat Treatment
δ-Solid solution
1600
A Melt + δ-Solid solution Steels are iron-carbon alloys whose properties can be
B Fe3C
1500
H I Melt
(Cementite) influenced through changes of the chemical composi-
δ- + -γ-Solid solution
1400
N tion (C-content and addition of alloying elements) and
D
1300
Melt +
γ-Solid solution Melt + Fe3C
through heat treatment. Thereby, a multitude of tool
1200
Temperature in °C

γ-Solid solution
(Austenite)
E C
F steels is created which meet every requirement. To
1100

1000
understand the different kinds of heat treatment, it is

900 G
γ-Solid solution + Fe1C
necessary to become familiar with the processes which
γ- + α-Solid solution
800
O
occur in steels during heating and cooling.
α-Solid solution M
K
(Ferrite) 700 P S
α-Solid solution + Fe1C
600
The phase diagram iron-carbon (Figure 1) forms a
500
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 L 7 first basis for heat treatment. It shows the structure
Carbon content in weight percentage
components and volumes under conditions of equilib-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cementite in weight percentage rium. From the phase diagram it can be deduced that
Figure 1 austenite, and in hypereutectoid steels austenite and
Phase diagram
Iron-carbon cementite, are present at temperatures above the GSK
line (see diagram). During very slow cooling, which
again leads to conditions of equilibrium at room tem-
peratures, a transformation of the austenite into other
types of structure occurs.

6

Steels with C-contents of below 0.8 % precipitate ferrite
from the austenite area during cooling, and the residual
austenite disintegrates below 723 °C into pearlite. At a
carbon content of 0.8 % only pearlite is formed as a mixture
of ferrite and cementite. In steels with C-contents of above
0.8 % pearlite and cementite are formed, whereby the sec-
ondary cementite is precipitated at the grain boundaries.
Through the addition of other alloying elements the trans-
formation temperatures and the lines of equilibrium can be
altered and the formation of carbide can be influenced.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT
in the TTT diagrams; they form a further basis of heat treat-
ment.
In the isothermal TTT diagrams the time in the logarithmic
scale is entered on the x-axis and the temperature on the
y-axis.
The curves shown therein mark the transformation behav-
ior of the supercooled austenite at isothermal heat treat-
ment as previously explained.

The phase diagram does not give any information about

the structure of steels cooled down fast from the austenite
area. With higher cooling speed the transformation of the
austenite does not occur according to the equilibrium ratios
and leads to other kinds of structure – sorbite, troostite,
bainite, martensite – which are not shown in the Fe-C-
phase diagram. The transformation processes are described

7
 In Figure 2 to 3 it is shown in what way these diagrams are
developed. Small samples heated to austenitizing temper-
ature – normally the hardening temperature – are quickly
Temperature in °C
submerged in a salt bath held at the desired transforma-
tion temperature according to Figure 2. They are kept in
the bath for increasing periods of time and then quenched
in salt water. Following this, hardening measurement and
structure examination are performed. In this, the time of
the start of the transformation B and its finish E are deter-
mined. This can also be carried out in a dilatometric way.
Such series of experiments are carried out for a range of
temperatures. For example, Figure 3 shows the result for
a steel with 0.55 % C and 1.04 % Mn. In Figure 3 all points
B and, respectively, E are connected with each other. With
this, the TTT diagram has already been outlined.
Its statement is further explained using the example of
the isothermal TTT diagram for the steel grade 1.2542
(45WCrV7) as shown in Figure 4. Firstly, it turns out that
the austenite can be supercooled below Ac1 if it is cooled
sufficiently fast. The supercooled state remains at first
even during the isothermal treatment. Only while exceeding
the “rise time”, i.e. to the right of the “transformation start”
line, is a new structure component formed. In Figure 4, this
is initially ferrite at higher temperatures, e.g. at 700 °C, lat-
er pearlite is formed. Transformation in this case ends after
TTT DIAGRAMS FOR CONTINUOUS COOLING
The continuous TTT diagrams are important resources for
the practical heat treatment, especially hardening.
These diagrams are to be read in the direction of the
marked-in cooling curves which (in the case of round
bars) are to be aligned, depending on the diameter and on
the quenching medium applied, to the individual section
areas, e.g. rim, mid-radius and center. The fast coolings are
marked by so-called parameters, the slower ones through
direct statement of the cooling speed. The parameters
come about through division of the cooling time from 800
to 500 °C by 100 (e.g. parameter 0.15: the curve for which
cooling from 800 to 500 °C needs 15 s).
8
Austenitizing temperature
Cooling in the salt bath to transformation temperature
Start of Finish of
transformation transformation
~ Transformation
temperature
Quenching in water
Time in seconds
Martensite Transformation structure
Figure 2
Diagram of the determination of the transformation start time and
finish at isothermal heat treatment
450 s (= 7½ mins.). For temperatures of 350 °C for example,
transformation into bainite starts after a holding time of
around 30 s. This is finished after 3,000 s (= 50 mins.).
Below the Ms line martensite is formed. It forms sponta-
neously on reaching transformation time. Its amount – in
1st approximation – is dependent only on temperature and
not on time. In Figure 4, for example, at 235 °C 50 % and at
100 °C 90 % martensite are preserved. Especially for hot-
work steels at cooling to room temperature, i.e. at hard-
ening, 100 % martensite can practically never be achieved.
There remains a certain amount of “retained austenite”,
whose transformation – frequently only in parts – can be
induced through a deep cooling treatment.
The diagrams state which transformations happen in a
steel depending on the cooling speed and which hardness
comes about after achieving ambient temperature (circled
numbers on the lower curve end). Also the constituents
of the microstructure including the retained austenite are
stated in the diagrams.
 Austenitizing temperature Figure 3
Development of an isothermal
Cooling curve
TTT diagram for a steel with
800 0.55 % C and 1.04 % Mn

B E
700
B E

B E
600
B E

B E
Temperature in °C

500
B E

B E
400
B E

B E
300

200

100

0
0.1 1 101 102 103 104 105
Time in seconds

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT

Austenitizing temperature: 900°C
1200
Figure 4
1.2542 (RTW 2 H)
1100 Isothermal TTT diagram for the steel
1.2542 (45WCrV7)
1000

900 Δ Ac3 (0.4°/min)

800 Δ Ac1 (0.4°/min) Start of ferrite formation Start of pearlite formation

Temperature in °C

700 30 23 96 Finish of transformation

70 32 34
35
Pearlite phase
Austenite + carbide 36
600 37
Start of transformation
500

400
MS Start of transformation
44 40
300 47
54 Bainite
50%
200
Martensite phase
100 90%

61
0
1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Seconds
1 2 4 8 15 50 60 1 2 3 5 7 10
= Hardness values in HRB or, respectively, HRC Minutes Days
70 = Structure percentage 1 2 4 8 16 24
Time Hours

Figures 5–7 make clear the typical differences which occur sion proceeds so slowly that even at 0.2 °C/min. only 20 %
in the TTT diagrams of steels of different hardenability. For of pearlite is generated.
the water hardening steel 1.1625 (C80W2) in Figure 5, the It should be emphasized that the diagrams displayed in-
complete conversion in the pearlite phase occurs already clude a certain scatter range due to a case of analysis and
in fast cooling (parameter 0.03). For the oil hardening steel is only valid for the stated austenitizing conditions and a
1.2542, cooling must amount to only max. 10 °C/min. normal state of pre-treatment. Higher austenitizing tem-
according to Figure 6. For the air hardening steel peratures push conversion, especially the pearlite phase,
1.2767/RABW (45NiCrMo16), however, the pearlite conver- back, they therefore improve hardenability.

9
 Austenitizing temperature: 800°C
1200
Figure 5
1.1625 (RB 8)
1100 Continuous TTT diagram for water hardening steel.
1.1625 (C80W2)
1000 0.85 % C, 0.15 % Si, 0.20 % Mn
900

800
Ac3 (0.4°/min)
Temperature in °C

700 100
100 100 100 Ac1 (0.4°/min)
100 100
600 100 100 Pearlite phase
Austenite 100
100
+ carbide
500 0.006
2 4 98
0.03 0.04 0.08 0.15 0.28 0.50 1.2 2.6 20°/min 5°/min

0.009 0.02
400 0.01

300
MS
200
Martensite phase
100
876
0 870 865 845 440 378 358 326 314 300 284 273 256 233 212

0,1 1 10 102 103 104 105

Seconds
= Hardness values in HV 1 2 4 8 15 50 60
2 – 100 = Microstructure constituents in % Minutes
0.006 – 2.6 = Cooling parameters 1 2 4 8 16 24
Time Hours

Austenitizing temperature: 900°C

1200
Figure 6
1.2542 (RTW 2 H)
1100 Continuous TTT diagram for oil hardening steel.
1.2542 (45WCrV7)
1000 0.45 % C, 0.95 % Si, 1.10 % Cr, 0.17 % V, 1.90 % W
900 Ac3 (0.4°/min)

800 Ac1 (0.4°/min)

43 Pearlite phase
Ferrite 40 40
Temperature in °C

700 35 60
57
30 60
Austenite + carbide 1 10
600 Pearlite
20°/min
500 0.14 0.30 0.50 1.3 2.6 7.0 10°/min 5°/min 1.25°/min

400 Bainite
MS 3
300 70
95 98 68
54
Martensite phase
200

100
730 699 690 579 498 454 415 395 347 251 228
0
1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Seconds
= Hardness values in HV 1 2 4 8 15 50 60 1 2 3 5 7 10
1 – 98 = Microstructure constituents in % Minutes Days
0.14 – 7.0 = Cooling parameters 1 2 4 8 16 24
Time Hours

Austenitizing temperature: 840°C

1200
Figure 7
1.2767 (RABW)
1100 Continuous TTT diagram for air hardening steel.
1.2767/RABW (45NiCrMo16)
1000 0.45 % C, 1.35 % Cr, 0.23 % Mo, 3.9 % Ni
900

800 Ac1e (0.4°/min)

Temperature in °C

700 Ac1b (0.4°/min)

600 Pearlite
Austenite 20
+ traces of carbide 2.1 5.6 20°/min 10°/min 5°/min 2.5°/min 1.25°/min 0.4°/min 0.2°/min
500 0.14 0.4 1.1

400

300 Bainite
MS 1 50 98 78
200
Martensite phase
100
726 623 613 613 613 613 613 603 603 584 532 440 435
0
1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Seconds
= Hardness values in HV 1 2 4 8 15 30 60 1 2 3 5 7 10
1 – 98 = Microstructure constituents in % Minutes Days
0.14 – 5.6 = Cooling parameters 1 2 4 8 16 24
Time Hours

10
 Austenitizing temperature: 850°C
1200
Figure 8
1.2714 (RGS 4)
1100 Isothermal TTT diagram and
isothermal transformation in the pearlite phase types of heat treatment
1000 isothermal transformation in the bainite phase 1.2714/RGS 4 (55NiCrMoV7)
Hot-bath hardening
900

800 Ac1e (0.4°/min)

Temperature in °C

Start of transformation
700 Ac1b (0.4°/min)
27 30 26 End of transformation
600 Austenite + carbide 31 Pearlite phase
34

500 Start of transformation

400 End of transformation

300 47
MS 51
55
Bainite

200
50% Martensite phase
100
90%
63
0
1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Seconds
= Hardening values in HRC 1 2 4 8 15 30 60 1 2 3 5 7 10
Minutes Days
1 2 4 8 16 24
Time Hours

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE TTT DIAGRAMS FOR CONTINUOUS COOLING

So as to be able to transfer the statements of the TTT table. It states for water, oil and air hardening the cooling

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT

diagrams to the hardening of tool steels one must know the parameters λ1 or, respectively, the cooling speeds ν in the
cooling speed of water, oil and air hardening. For round bars core depending on the diameter.
this can be stated relatively exactly. If one at first concen-
trates on the core zone it is possible to use the following In order to determine the cooling speed or the cooling pa-
Ø (mm) for cooling in rameter on various section areas, the following Figures 9 to
λ respectively ν 1
water 2
oil 2
air 13 are to be consulted.
0.01 10
They are valid for water, oil, and air cooling and round bars
0.03 18
of 50 to 800 mm diameters.
0.06 25 10
The broken line refers to the core of the round rods.
0.10 35 18
0.20 50 30
For the cooling parameter or the cooling speed determined
0.35 70 45
in this way, the structure and the hardness to be reached
0.50 85 60
after conversion can be determined in the TTT diagram.
0.70 105 70
Some examples can clarify the possibilities of application:
1.00 130 90 10
2.00 180 130 18
3.00 230 170 25 Example 1: Which surface hardness can be reached with

5.00 300 220 40 the oil hardening steel 1.2542 on a cylindrical work piece
7.00 360 280 55 with a diameter of 100 mm?
9.00 20°/min. 420 320 65
18.00 10°/min. 600 500 130 According to Figure 11 the parameter for a diameter of
36.00 5°/min. 900 750 220 100 mm and a distance from the edge of 5 mm amounts to
72.00 2.5°/min. 1300 1150 400 0.29. In the continuous TTT diagram for 1.2542 (Figure 6)
144.00 1.25°/min. 1900 1700 700 a cooling curve with a parameter of 0.30 is found. For this
225.00 0.80°/min. 2400 2200 1000
parameter a hardness of 690 HV and a structure with 97 %
450.00 0.40°/min. 3500 3300 1900
martensite and 3 % bainite is achieved.

1
The cooling parameters or, respectively, speeds are attached to the cooling curves on the 500 °C isotherms in the TTT diagram.
2
Workpiece moderately moved.
11
 Example 2: A cylindrical die of 400 mm diameter from steel
1.2767/RABW is air hardened. Which hardness and which
4
structure are to be expected at the edge and in the core?
3 200
2

(Cooling from 800 °C to 500 °C in sec x 10-2)

150
According to Figure 13, edge and core cool down with
1
nearly the same speed of 2.5 °C/min for a diameter of 400 0.8
100

Cooling parameter λ
0.6
mm. According to the TTT diagram for continuous cooling 0.5 80
Cooling curve
0.4
for the core of
(Figure 7) this cooling generates in the core 1 % bainite, 94 % 0.3 round bars

martensite and 5 % residual austenite for a hardness of 584 0.2 50

HV. For the edge it can be deduced that 95 % martensite and
0.1
5 % residual austenite for a hardness of about 600 HV can 0.08
0.06
be achieved. 0.05
0.04
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
min
Distance from the surface in mm
All these data are valid for the hardened condition before Figure 9
tempering. Water quenching

100 10
80 8
60 6
50 5
200
(Cooling from 800 °C to 500 °C in sec x 10-2)

(Cooling from 800 °C to 500 °C in sec x 10-2)

40 5°/min 4
30 800 3
150
700
20 10°/min 2
600
Cooling parameter λ

Cooling parameter λ

500 100
10 20°/min 1
400 80
8 Cooling curve 0.8 Cooling curve
for the core of for the core of
6 300 0.6
5 round bars 0.5 round bars
4 0.4 50
3 0.3
200
2 0.2

1 0.1
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance from the surface in mm Distance from the surface in mm

Figure 10 Figure 11
Water quenching Oil quenching

100 400
80 2.5°/min 300
1000
60
50 800 200 1°/min 800
700
(Cooling from 800 °C to 500 °C in sec x 10-2)

(Cooling from 800 °C to 500 °C in sec x 10-2)

40 5°/min 700 1.25°/min

600
30 600
100 500
20 10°/min 500 80 2.5°/min 400
Cooling parameter λ

Cooling parameter λ

400 60 300
50 Cooling curve
10 20°/min 40 5°/min 200 for the core of
300
8 Cooling curve round bars
30
6 for the core of
5 round bars
20 10°/min
4 200
100
3
10 20°/min
2 8
6
5
1 4
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Distance from the surface in mm Distance from the surface in mm

Figure 12 Figure 13
Oil quenching Air quenching

12
13
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT
 Types of Heat Treatment
Already the design of the tools by the design engineer
should take the heat treatment into consideration. Large
differences in section, especially with sharp transitions and
edges are to be avoided as they lead to locally high stress-
es.
A clean surface of the tools is very important. Scratches
create grooving effects and cause crack formation. Scale,
NORMALIZING
When a tool steel has been hot-formed one more time
in the course of further processing, normalizing before
soft-annealing is expedient. Normalizing equalizes differ-
ences in structure and/or refines a coarse grain. Through
this, an initial structure, as uniform as possible, is achieved
for the subsequent heat treatment. For this, the tools are
slowly and thoroughly heated to normalizing temperature.
14
corrosion and other residues contaminate could have a
harmful effect on the heat treatment process.
In this brochure, treatment instructions for every type of
steel are provided for the hot forming and heat treatment.
These instructions are guidelines and do not exclude special
measures in individual cases.
It is about 30 °C above the hardening temperature. They
are held at this level for about ½ hour and subsequently
cooled in air.
A complete transformation in the pearlite stage is the
prerequisite for the desired grain refinement. Only this
transformation leads to the desired grain refinement; not,
however, the transformations in the bainite phase and the
martensite phase.
It can be determined from the continuous TTT diagram,
whether a complete or nearly complete pearlitic transfor-
mation through normalizing can be reached for the given di-
mensions for a certain steel. According to the TTT diagram
for continuous cooling from the austenite area, higher-al-
loyed and thus transformation-resistant steels are to be
cooled so slowly that the steel transforms completely in
the pearlite phase. The same effect can be reached with an
SOFT ANNEALING
The soft-annealed condition is the most appropriate for
machining and chipless processing of the steels. Moreover,
it is favorable for subsequent hardening. Tool steels are
thus delivered in general in soft-annealed condition. Soft
isothermal tempering transformation in the pearlite phase
through the application of the isothermal TTT diagram.
Cooling down from the normalizing temperature into the
range of the pearlite formation can be carried out in the
furnace or through recharging. It is expedient to select as
austenitizing temperature a temperature which lies be-
tween 20° and 40 °C above Ac1e (Ac1e is defined in the TTT
TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT
diagrams). As this is lower than the austenitizing temper-
atures referred to in the TTT diagrams, the transformation
takes place faster than stated in the TTT diagrams. This
means that there is a welcome safety factor.
annealing on the part of the customer is taken into account
only if the steel is reforged or a second hardening is car-
ried out by the customer. During soft annealing the steel is
slowly heated to the required temperature – in the vicinity
15
 of the transformation temperature Ac1b – and held on this
level for two to four hours, then slowly – 10 to 20 °C/h
– cooled down to around 500 °C in the furnace and sub-
sequently cooled in air. Suitable measures are to be taken
against scaling and decarburization.
The soft-annealing temperatures for a lot of steels are
stated in our brochures. Soft-annealed steel has a charac-
teristic structure, so-called granular or globular cementite.

STRESS RELIEVING
Components with complicated forms or widely differing
sections will always warp more or less strongly during
hardening. So as to prevent warping through treatment
stresses during later heat treatment, a stress relieving of
the components in rough-machined condition is recom-
mended. For this, temperature should be 600 to 650 °C.
Holding time: Depending on wall thickness one to several
hours, with subsequent furnace cooling.
particularly critical cases, to air-cool it and to subsequent-
ly soft-anneal it so as to enable finish-machining. In the
course of this “pre-tempering”, the complicated component
will deform under stress reduction. Through finish-machin-
ing, it can be adjusted to the correct dimensions. Self-
evidently, sufficient material allowances are necessary. For
final tempering, the usual grinding tolerances are generally
sufficient.

The so-called stress relieving, however, is often not suf- Through frequent and regular stress relieving, the ser-
ficient to reduce possible internal stresses, which may be vice-life of hot-forming tools in operation can be considera-
present in the component for other reasons. Thus, it is bly extended. This heat treatment is expediently carried out
expedient to austenitize the rough-machined component in at about 30 to 50 °C below the tempering temperature.

HARDENING
When the tools arrive for hardening they are mostly fin- of the tools with the least possible risk of rejects, the heat
ished or nearly finish-machined save for a small grinding treatment must be carried out with the highest possible
allowance. So as to be able to reach the desired properties care.

SURFACE PROTECTION
During heat treatment, chemical processes occur with The highest degree of surface protection of workpieces is
heightened speed at high temperatures. Thus, during heat reached in vacuum furnaces.
treatment the problem arises of keeping the thermochem- Carbon
neutral
ical influence of the heating media on the steel surface of a Decrease Increase Tendency

workpiece neutral. Even if the surface of the workpiece has Chamber furnaces Unstable
with packaging
remained blank during hardening, the surface area may be
chemically changed and damaged through partial decarbur- CO-containing Carburization
inert gases
ization, carburization, oxygen and nitrogen intake (Figure
Inert gas Decarburization
14). CO-free

Low
Salt baths decarburization
The various heating media such as firm packaging media, inert Oxidation

hardening salts and inert gases display a more or less neu- neutral
Vacuum furnaces
tral behavior and are thus manageable to varying degrees
X-axis = frequency
(Figure 14). Many years of experience and continuous
Figure 14
control of heating media will yield good, steady results. Influence on the surface in various hardening processes

16
 HEATING TO HARDENING TEMPERATURE
The higher the alloying elements in a steel, the lower its chamber, bogie hearth or similar furnaces in packaging,
heat conductivity. This is why tool steels, which are in with inert gas or in vacuum, the prescribed preheating tem-
general highly alloyed, must be heated carefully. If hard- peratures are also to be set as steps. The workpieces are to
ening is not carried out from heat treatment facilities with be held on these temperatures up to full soaking.
controlled heating speed, the tools are to be preheated in
single or multiple steps. We state the most favorable pre- The tool has to be fully heated up to the prescribed hard-
heating temperatures for the different tool steels. ening temperature after preheating. The hardening furnace
must be controlled in such a way that the thinner sections
of a component, which inevitably rush ahead in the heat-
a = hardening
180 a section ing, are not over-heated or excessively held. Holding time,
160
High-alloyed steels which starts with the achievement of the temperature of
(e.g. 12 %
140
Cr-steels) the complete component, is dependent on the steel grade
Duration in minutes

120
a and the chosen temperature within the prescribed range.
a
100
In the case of simply-shaped tools, the upper hardening
80 Unalloyed or
low-alloyed steels
temperature limit can be selected most of the time, yet in
60
the case of tools with strongly varying sections the lower
40
hardening temperature range is to be preferred. Therefore,
20
holding times in the former case are shorter than in the
0
0 20 60 100 140 180 220 260 latter. Unalloyed and low-alloyed steels must be held on
Wall thickness in mm
the hardening temperature for significantly shorter peri-
Figure 15
Guiding values for the holding time after reaching the hardening ods due to the risk of overheating (grain coarsening) than
temperature on the surface, or the immersion time in the salt
bath respectively, in dependence of the wall thickness. high-alloyed, Cr-, Mo-, V-, W-carbide containing hot-work
steels. For these, the solution of the carbides, important for
For salt facilities it is recommended to preheat the compo- the achievement of optimal tempering resistance, needs
nents in a furnace at 300 to 400 °C before charging them significantly more time.
into a salt bath with the prescribed preheating temperature.
Preheating may however be omitted in the case of small, Figure 15 serves as an indication for the determination of
simply shaped tools, if the prescribed hardening tempera- the holding time after reaching the hardening temperature
ture in the salt bath does not exceed 850 °C. If heating is on the surface or the immersion time in the salt bath.
not carried out in salt baths but in furnaces such as retort, TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

QUENCHING
Quenching must be performed with the prescribed harden- components are to be removed from the quenching bath
ing agent. If hardening in water is prescribed, its temper- and immediately tempered. In the case of compressed
ature should be at 20 to 40 °C. For the internal hardening or blast air quenching, perfect dryness of the air must be
of bore holes, suitable sputtering equipment must be ensured.
installed. Hardening oils are to have higher temperatures
according to the prescriptions of the manufacturer. As soon
as the temperature has decreased to 60 to 100 °C, the

17
 HOT-BATH HARDENING
Hot-bath hardening offers particular advantages. For this,
quenching is carried out in an intermediate bath which is
held at a temperature in the transformation-resistant range
of the isothermal TTT diagram. For example, for the steel
grade 1.2379 (X153CrMoV12) the temperature of 450 to
500 °C is considered favorable, in which the supercooled
austenite is stable. For higher-alloyed steels such as high-
speed and hot-work steels a salt melt with a melting point
of roughly 430 °C at a temperature of 500 to 550 °C is
used. For lower-alloyed oil hardenable steels a salt melt
with a melting point of 140 °C is used at a temperature
between 160 to 200 °C.
TEMPERING
Tempering means holding the hardened steel at tempera-
tures below Ac1, mostly with subsequent air cooling.
Tempering causes a reduction of stress and a gain in
toughness through the transformation of the “tetragonal”
martensite in the less crack-prone “cubic” form. Therefore,
tempering must in all cases be carried out immediately
after hardening.
Moreover, through tempering a microstructure stable
against heat affection is achieved, which is particularly
important for hot-forming tools. The precondition for the
microstructure stability is that the tempering temperature
selected is at least 30 to 50 °C higher than the working
temperature of the tool. For this, however, the interchange-
ability of temperature and time, which exists to a certain
extent, must be taken into consideration.
For example, a one-hour tempering at 600 °C has some-
thing like the same effect as a tempering treatment at
500 °C over a period of 400 hours. This example shows
18
The workpieces are held in these baths at least to full
thermal equilibrium and subsequently cooled down to room
temperature.
Hot-bath hardening, which can be carried out not only after
heating in a hardening salt bath but also from other fur-
naces, offers the advantage of reduced dimension changes,
weaker warping, the smallest risk of cracks and a clean
surface.
that the influence of temperature is much stronger than
that of time.
Multiple tempering increases toughness.
For higher-alloyed steels and tempering temperatures of
over 500 °C, a second tempering at about 30 °C below
the temperature of the first tempering is required. This is
necessary due to the presence of retained austenite after
hardening, which, during cooling after the first tempering,
transforms into the tetragonal martensite. This is convert-
ed into the less brittle cubic martensite during the second
tempering.
Immediately after hardening the tools must best be
tempered in a convection air furnace, in a fluid bath (oil) or
in salt baths. The temperatures are to be taken from the
tempering diagrams of the individual steel grades. The
tempering time is dependent on the material thickness. The
components are to be slowly heated to tempering temper-
ature and are to be held for at least one hour per 25 mm
thickness at this temperature.
19
 CASE HARDENING
Case hardening means a hardening after prior carburiz-
ing, where appropriate with simultaneous nitriding of the
surface. Case hardened tools are preferably employed as
structural steels for plastics processing, i.e. where high
core toughness and a wear resistant surface are required
together.
The carburizing consists of a carbon concentration through
holding at a temperature above the conversion points Ac1
or Ac3 in carbon-emitting media. Depending on the type of
medium employed this is referred to as gas, bath or pow-
der carburizing. The carburizing depth is determined by the
duration of the carburizing and the activity of the carburiz-
ing medium. In general, the case hardening temperatures
THERMAL CYCLE DIAGRAM
The heat treatment processes described may be easily
shown through thermal cycle diagrams for individual steel
groups.
1. Hot-Work Steels
With respect to heat treatment hot-work steels can be
subdivided into two groups:
• Hot-work steels with a hardening temperature of above
950 °C (high-alloyed hot-work steels, Figure 16).
• Hot-work steels with a hardening temperature below
950 °C; this includes most of the die steels (Figure 17).
Double tempering is required for hot-work steels with a
hardening temperature of over 950 °C (high alloyed steels),
for such with a hardening temperature below 950 °C (die
steels) it is expedient. The principle of multiple tempering
increases the toughness in these cases, too.
2. Alloyed Cold-Work Steels
With respect to heat treatment cold-work steels just like
hot-work steels can be subdivided into two groups:
• High-alloyed cold-work steels with hardening temperature
of above 900 °C. This includes for example the high-chro-
mium-alloyed steels of the type 2 % C–12 % Cr, as well
as steels with a Cr-content of above 5 %, such as 1.2362
(X63CrMoV5-1) or 1.2363 (X100CrMoV5) (Figure 18).
20
lie at 870 to 930 °C, however also higher temperatures are
occasionally applied.
As a rule, tool steels are case hardened according to 2
processes:
1. Direct hardening consists of a hardening of the carbur-
ized workpiece at the end of the carburizing process,
whereby the hardening temperature may lie lower than
the carburizing temperature; however it must still be
above Ar3 of the case.
2. In single hardening the work piece is cooled after car-
burizing to below Ar1 and subsequently quenched from
the hardening temperature of the case.
• Low-alloyed cold-work steels with hardening tempera-
tures of below 900 °C. This group includes most of the
cold-work steels, such as 1.2842 (90MnCrV8), 1.2067
(102Cr6), 1.2419 (105WCr6), 1.2767/RABW (45NiCr-
Mo16) and so on (Figure 19).
3. Unalloyed Tool Steels (Figure 20)
Unalloyed steels have low effective hardening depth; they
are water-hardening steels. The quenching effect of water
and thus the hardness of the tool can be increased through
the addition of salt (10–12 % salt solution). Oil-quenching
is considered only for few grades and in this case only for
very small thicknesses.
4. Case-Hardened Steels
Case hardening has already been described before.
The two thermal sequence diagrams for
• direct hardening (Figure 21)
• single hardening (Figure 22)
will demonstrate the two processes.
 Stress relieving Preheating – Austenitizing – Hardening Tempering

Hardening temperature
Finish
Temperature

Rough machining 2nd preheating stage

1 min/mm Air/oil
machining
Slow ~ 900°C
furnace cooling Equalizing 1st tempering
1st preheating stage temperature 2nd tempering
1/2 min/mm 1 h/25 mm
600 – 650°C 1 h/100 mm 1 h/25 mm
~ 650°C
Hot bath
500 – 550°C
Warming-up stage Air Air
1/2 min/mm
~ 400°C

Time

Figure 16
Thermal sequence for the heat treatment of hot-work steels with a hardening temperature of above 950 °C

Stress relieving Preheating – Austenitizing – Hardening Tempering

Finish
Temperature

Rough machining Hardening temperature

machining
Slow Equalizing
furnace cooling Preheating stage temperature
1/2 min/mm 1 h/100 mm
600 – 650°C ~ 650°C
Oil/air/
water Air
Warming-up stage Tempering
1/2 min/mm 1 h/25 mm
~ 400°C

Time

Figure 17
Thermal sequence for the heat treatment of hot-work steels with a hardening temperature below 950 °C

Stress relieving Preheating – Austenitizing – Hardening Tempering

TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

Hardening temperature
Finish
Temperature

Rough machining 2nd preheating stage

1 min/mm
machining Equalizing
Slow ~ 850°C
furnace cooling temperature
1st preheating stage 1 h/100 mm
600 – 650°C 1/2 min/mm
~ 650°C Hot bath Air/oil
500 – 600°C
Air
Warming-up stage
Tempering
1/2 min/mm
1 h/25 mm
~ 400°C

Time

Figure 18
Thermal sequence for the heat treatment of high-alloyed cold-work steels with hardening temperatures of about 900 °C

21
 Stress relieving Preheating – Austenitizing – Hardening Tempering

Hardening temperature
Finish

Temperature
Rough machining 2nd preheating stage
1 min/mm
machining
Slow ~ 850°C Equalizing
furnace cooling temperature
1st preheating stage 1 h/100 mm
600 – 650°C 1/2 min/mm
~ 650°C
Hot bath Air/oil
450 – 500°C Air
Warming-up stage
Tempering
1/2 min/mm
1 h/25 mm
~ 400°C
Hot bath
~ 200°C

Time

Figure 19
Thermal sequence for the heat treatment of low-alloyed cold-work steels with
hardening temperatures of up to 900 °C

Stress relieving Preheating – Austenitizing – Hardening Tempering

Finish
Temperature

Rough machining
Hardening temperature
machining
Slow Equalizing
furnace cooling temperature
Preheating stage 1 h/100 mm
600 – 650°C 1/2 min/mm
~ 650°C
Air/oil/ Air
water
Warming-up stage
Tempering
1/2 min/mm
1 h/25 mm
~ 400°C
Hot bath
~ 200°C

Time

Figure 20
Thermal sequence for the heat treatment of unalloyed tool steels

Stress relieving Heating – Carburizing – Hardening Tempering

Finish
Temperature

Rough machining
Carburizing temperature
machining
Slow Equalizing
furnace cooling temperature
Decreasing
600 – 650°C 1 h/100 mm
and equalizing
temperature Oil/water
Air

1st Tempering
1 h/25 mm

Time

Figure 21
Thermal sequence for direct hardening

22
 Stress relieving Heating – Carburizing – Cooling – Preheating – Hardening Tempering

Finish
Temperature

Rough machining
Carburizing temperature Hardening temperature
machining
Slow
furnace cooling Preheating stage
600 – 650°C Air cooling 1/2 min/mm
~ 650°C
Oil/water Air

1st Tempering
1 h/25 mm
Hot bath
~ 200°C

Time

Figure 22
Thermal sequence for single hardening

EXAMPLES FOR APPLICATION

The opposition between toughness and wear resistance
properties forces a reasonable compromise in the material
selection and the determination of hardness. In many cas-
es, the resulting wear resistance of the tool is not sufficient
for cost-efficient work life. Through surface treatments on
the finish-machined tool decisive improvements can how-
ever be achieved. From the multitude of possible processes
only 4 shall be mentioned here, which have already met
with a broader application or have recently gained greater
importance: nitriding, hard chromium plating, coating with
hard metals and steam tempering. With surface treatment,
not only an increase of the wear resistance is achieved
through partially considerable hardness increases. At the
same time the sliding properties are improved and corro-
sion resistance is increased.
These surface treatment processes are extensively de-
scribed in literature. In the following, especially their effects
on the surface properties of the steels will therefore be
shown.

NITRIDING
One of the most frequent processes for tools today is 1.2080 (X210Cr12) are not suited for nitriding, the remain-
nitriding. Depending on the process – gas or salt bath ni- ing steels can be treated.
triding, ionitriding – treatment temperatures of around 450
70
to 580 °C are applied. Therefore, only steels with suffi-
66
cient tempering resistance are suitable for such treatment,
62
preferably those with a distinctive secondary hardness
58
Rockwell hardness HRC

TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

maximum. On the one hand, the material must be tempered 54

sufficiently highly before nitriding so that during the final 50

treatment no dimensional changes caused by structural 46

Material
changes occur, which would make post-treatment of the 42
number
Saarstahl
Hardening
temperature °C
1.2080 950
tools necessary. On the other hand, the base material must 38 1.2344 1050
1.2369 1070
retain a sufficiently high hardness so that a sufficient sup- 34
1.2379 1080
1.2842 810
1.3343 1220
port effect for the superhard surface layer is guaranteed. 30
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Tempering temperature in °C (duration 1h, air cooling)
Mean values on samples 25 x 50 mm
In Figure 23 the tempering diagrams of some tool steels
Figure 23
are contrasted. Of these materials the steels 1.2842 and Tempering behavior of tool steels

23
 Due to the advantage of short treatment times, often salt (diffusion zone) up to around 150 μm are reached. In order
bath nitriding according to the Tenifer process is applied for to prevent flaking on the cutting edge of cutting tools, the
materials. Depending on material and treatment time, sur- meeting of two nitrided surfaces should be avoided through
face hardnesses of 1,000 to 1,300 HV and nitriding depths regrinding of one surface.

HARD CHROMIUM PLATING

For hard chromium plating the surface hardnesses are in
the range of 1,000 to 1,200 HV. The treatment is carried
out at around 50 °C so that the basic structure is not af-
fected. Adhesion is not always sufficient as a diffusion zone
with the base material will not be created. A more sophis-
ticated method exists under the name Duralloy, with which
hardnesses of 1,200 to 1,400 HV can be set.
Adhesion has been improved against the traditional pro-
cesses. As a rule, chromium thicknesses of 5–20 μm
thickness are generated. Tools chromium plated accord-
ing to this process in some instances reach considerably
increased efficiency.

COATING WITH HARD MATERIALS

Very high hardnesses of around 2,000 to 4,500 HV can be and collaborators is quoted (Figure 24). For punching holes
set if hard materials such as TiC, TiN or WC are emitted into plates of various thicknesses applying stamps of a 12 %
from the gas phase to the tool surface. The two best- Cr-steel the influence of the TiC layer coated according to
known possibilities are the CVD and the PVD processes. the CVD process was examined. The diagram shows that
through coating the number of punches performed until
In the chemical vapor deposition process (CVD) the coating regrinding is increased between 4 and 20 times depending
material is generated through the chemical reaction of gas- on the thickness of the plates.
eous components. The treatment temperatures lie around
Figure 24
1,000 °C so that for tool steels only those with hardening 100 With TiC Tempering
behavior of
temperatures within or above this range can be coated. Due 50
tool steels
Number of hole punches until re-grinding in 103

Without TiC
to the unavoidable changes in dimension and form through 20

conversion and temperature stresses, only geometrically 10

simple tools can be treated as the low coating thickness 5

(around 5 μm) does not permit finishing. 2

In the physical vapor deposition process (PVD) the metal- 0.5

Cutting material: 0.12 % C; 0.35 % Mn

lic hard material component is present in solid form. It is Stamp: 1.5 % C; 12 % Cr
(corresponds 1.2201)
brought into the steam phase through physical processes 0.1
0.5 1 2 3 5 10
(evaporating, sputtering, ion-plating) where it deposits on Thickness of cutting material in mm

the tool surface after bonding with the reactant. Against

the CVD process the PVD process has the advantage that
the coating temperatures (around 350 to 550 °C) lie within
the range of the tempering temperatures of high-alloyed
tool steels. The tools can therefore be coated after the heat
treatment is finished.
The increase in efficiency through coating with hard materi-
als is considerable. As an example a research result by Sato
Hard material layers can also be deposited through a kind
of spark discharge hardening whereby the surface is heated
only to a depth of a few μm. In this process TiC or WC is
deposited through spark discharge between the tool and a
vibrating electrode. Layer thicknesses up to around 80 μm
are achievable; due to the high surface roughness regrind-
ing must be performed.

24
STEAM TEMPERING
Steam tempering is a surface treatment process which is
applied nearly exclusively for high-speed tool steel. For
this, an extremely thin oxide film of some thousandths mm
thickness is deposited on the tools.
This oxide film reduces the tendency for adhesion and
cold-weldability of the tools as well as their abrasive wear.
GRINDING
The high operational speeds which are usual during grinding
on modern grinding machines significantly increase the risk
of burning the tools in case of too high forward feeds.
In the case of hard tool steel and high-speed steel, it is
mostly the dreaded grinding cracks created due to improper
grinding operation, especially due to too hard disks. In the
case of case-hardened components, the case may splinter
off due to unsuitable grinding.
For the selection of the disks, the following principle ap-
plies: Use hard disks for soft steel, use soft disks for hard
steel.
For rough grinding use coarse-grained, for fine grinding use
fine-grained discs. Too hard and too fine discs heat up the
steel too much and cause grinding cracks. When in doubt,
the selection of the grinding discs should be determined by
the producer.
ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE TEXTURING
During electrical discharge machining the material on the
surface of the tool becomes fusible. As a consequence there
remain from the outside to the inside a solidification area
with cast structure, a hardness increase and a high-tem-
pered layer. Below exists the unaffected base material.
The so-called white zone almost always contains tension
cracks. The heat-affected layer generated through scrub-
The treatment is carried out in convection furnaces into
which dry steam is introduced. The temperatures must
lie below the latest tempering temperature, i.e. they are
slightly above 500 °C.
The process is especially suitable for small tools such as
spiral drills and screw taps, broaches, reamers, counter-
sinks and such.
Hardened tools from high-speed steel as well as such of
high-quality cutting steel, also case-hardened tools, for
which in most cases a clean grinding is necessary, must be
ground with abundant water cooling. For cooling no soap-
like coolants should be used if possible. Yet, the use of a
grinding emulsion is recommended.
One can immediately realize on the ground surface wheth-
er the grinding was carried out properly or improperly. If
the ground surface displays a yellowish to brownish color,
grinding was carried out with an excessively deep chip, i.e.
with too much heat generation. If hardened tools show
such surfaces, they are tempered through grinding, i.e. they
have become soft, and they mostly contain grinding cracks.
This can be recognized through slight etching with weak
acids.
bing should by all means be removed through one
TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT
or more coating erosion steps with low performance.
More­over, a final stress relieving of the tool of around
30 to 50 °C below tempering temperature is recommended
as also after coating erosion an affection of the surface
– even if small – remains.
25
 ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING
Electrical discharge machining is a further technique with
extraordinary results if tools with geometrically difficult
Tensile stresses

forms are cut out of plates. In this process the affection of Compression
stresses

the tool surface is small and thus less problematic. Never-

Stress field after Possible crack formation
theless, the unrestricted application of electrical discharge hardening (schematic) through stresses released

machining is not free of risks. Larger tools always contain

more or less high inherent stresses after heat treatment.
During eroding this stress condition is seriously disrupt-
ed; the stresses released by this can cause cracks. This is
shown schematically in Figure 25 (upper half). This risk can Stress field reduced Lower-risk finishing
through stress relief cuts of the cut
be considerably reduced if before heat treatment stress
Figure 25
removal cuts are carried out, which are aligned to the con- Risk of cracks during electrical discharge machining of large tools
tours of the tool (Figure 25 lower half). This measure leads
to a considerably reduced stress field after heat treatment;
the danger of crack formation during eroding is reduced.

INFLUENCE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ALLOY ELEMENTS ON

THE PROPERTIES OF TOOL STEELS (SCHEMATIC)
Indirect influences, i.e. the affection of toughness through
hardenability, are not considered in this scheme which
merely carries orienting character.

26
 ALLOYING HARDNESS AFTER THROUGH- TEMPERING HIGH-TEMPERATURE
ELEMENTS QUENCHING WEAR RESISTANCE HARDENABILITY TOUGHNESS RESISTANCE STRENGTH
C solved          
unsolved (carbide)          
Cr solved          
as alloy carbide      
Si
Mn      
Ni            
Mo solved                
as alloy carbide        
W solved          
as alloy carbide        
V solved              
as alloy carbide            

Negative
Slightly negative  
No influence
Slightly positive
Moderately positive
Positive
Strongly positive

27
You can obtain further information at
www.saarschmiede.com

Saarschmiede GmbH Freiformschmiede

Bismarckstraße 57–59
66333 Völklingen | Germany

Telephone + 49 (0) 6898 10 4310 Saarschmiede GmbH Freiformschmiede is a company of the Saarstahl Group.

All figures refer to standardized test samples and are given to the best of our knowledge but without further commitment. It is Saarschmiede’s belief that in-
formation set forth in this brochure is accurate. Saarschmiede makes no warranty, expressed or implied, with respect thereto and disclaims any liability from
reliance thereon. All data are subject to change without prior notice.