Periodica Mathematica Hungarica Vol. 57 (2 ), 2008, pp.

197–206
DOI: 10.1007/s10998-008-8197-5

CIRCLE GEOMETRY
IN AFFINE CAYLEY–KLEIN PLANES

Horst Martini1 and Margarita Spirova2

1
Faculty of Mathematics, Chemnitz University of Technology
D-09107 Chemnitz, Germany
E-mail: horst.martini@mathematik.tu-chemnitz.de
2
Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics, University of Sofia
5 James Bourchier, 1164 Sofia, Bulgaria
(Received January 21, 2008; Accepted March 21, 2008)

Abstract
Some theorems from inversive and Euclidean circle geometry are ex-
tended to all affine Cayley–Klein planes. In particular, we obtain an ana-
logue to the first step of Clifford’s chain of theorems, a statement related to
Napoleon’s theorem, extensions of Wood’s theorem on similar-perspective tri-
angles and of the known fact that the three radical axes of three given circles
are parallel or have a point in common. For proving these statements, we use
generalized complex numbers.

1. Introduction

A circle in the Euclidean plane can be defined as the locus of all points having
the same distance to a given point. But it can also be defined as a conic passing
through the so-called cyclic points I1 and I2 (in German “imaginäre Kreispunkte”) of
the Euclidean plane, which form the absolute in the sense of A. Cayley and F. Klein.
The first (and “metric”) concept can be conveniently extended to normed planes,
where the distance between two points is determined by the norm of their difference.
(Note that also this type of geometry is called Minkowski geometry; see below.) For
circle geometry in such planes we refer, e.g., to [1], [12], and [13]. The second
(and “absolute”) concept can be conveniently extended to planes with different

Mathematics subject classification numbers: 51F99, 51M04, 51M05, 51M99.

Key words and phrases: (affine) Cayley–Klein geometries, circles, complex numbers, dou-
ble numbers, dual numbers, equiform transformations, Galilean plane, Gaussian plane,
generalized complex numbers, isotropic plane, Lorentzian plane, Minkowski plane, pseudo-
Euclidean plane, similarities.
2
Supported by a grant D01-761/24.10.06 from the Ministry of Education and Sciences,
and by a grant 108/2007 from Sofia University.
0031-5303/2008/$20.00 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest

c Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest Springer, Dordrecht

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198 H. MARTINI and M. SPIROVA

types of absolutes in the sense of Cayley and Klein. According to Klein’s famous
Erlangen program, one main subject of geometry is to study properties of figures
which are invariant with respect to groups of transformations. The so-called Cayley–
Klein geometries are obtained when the corresponding groups of transformations are
induced by the types of conics (non-degenerate or degenerate) how they are classified
in projective geometry. Such a conic is called the absolute of the corresponding
geometry, and the group of transformations in this geometry consists of all projective
transformations preserving the absolute. Among these geometries are the Euclidean
geometry, the hyperbolic (Lobachevsky) geometry, the elliptic (Riemann) geometry,
the isotropic (Galilean) geometry, the pseudo-Euclidean (Minkowski) geometry, etc.
(see [15], [9], [6], [25], and [18]). If the absolute contains a line, then one obtains
the subfamily of affine Cayley–Klein geometries. More precisely, if the absolute
consists of a line f and a point F lying on f , then we have the isotropic geometry.
An isotropic circle is a conic touching f at F . Choose an affine coordinate system
with homogeneous coordinates such that f : x3 = 0 (i.e., f is the line at infinity) and
F = (0, 1, 0). Then all parabolas appear as isotropic circles with diameter parallel
to the second coordinate axis. In case that the absolute consists of the points
F1 = (1, 0, 0) and F2 = (0, 1, 0) (and therefore also of the line at infinity), then
we have the pseudo-Euclidean (Minkowski) geometry. A pseudo-Euclidean circle is
a conic passing through F1 and F2 , i.e., a rectangular hyperbola. If the absolute
consists of the complex-conjugate points I1 = (i, 1, 0) and I2 = (i, −1, 0), called
the cyclic points (therefore again of the line at infinity), then we get the Euclidean
plane. (As mentioned above, a Euclidean circle is a conic passing through I1 and
I2 .) These three planes form the complete class of affine Cayley–Klein planes, and
we will use the abbreviation affine CK-planes.
In this paper we present new properties of circles in affine CK-planes. These
are related to analogues of theorems connected with the names of Clifford, Napoleon
and Wood. Other properties, such as the Six-Circles theorem and Miquel’s theorem,
can be found in [25, p. 278] and [19], and further recent results on circles in affine
CK-planes are given in [20] and [21]. One should also mention that repeatedly the
ignorance of (affine) CK-geometries led to the rediscovery of properties of parabolas
or hyperbolas, which are well-known as properties of isotropic or pseudo-Euclidean
circles; see, e.g., K. Strubecker’s review (MR0970729) of the paper [8].

2. Preliminaries and notation

Analogously to the usual identification of points of the Euclidean plane with

complex numbers, we identify points of the three affine CK-planes with generalized
complex numbers. Any generalized complex number z can be written in the form

z = x + εy,

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 CIRCLE GEOMETRY IN AFFINE CAYLEY–KLEIN PLANES 199

where x, y ∈ R and ε2 ∈ {−1, 0, 1}. The real number x is called the real part of z
and is denoted by Re z. For y we use the notation Im z and call it the imaginary
part of z. The number x − εy is called the conjugate of z, and we write z for it. For
more on generalized complex numbers we refer to [24], [25, Supplement C], and [18,
§ 8]. Let P be a point in an affine CK-plane with affine coordinates (x, y). To P
we associate the number
z = x + εy.

The case ε2 = −1 yields the Euclidean plane, for ε2 = 0 one has the isotropic plane,
and ε2 = 1 yields the pseudo-Euclidean plane; see [25, Supplement C], [18, § 8], and
[6, p. 138]. We denote these three planes by A2 (R, ε2 ).
For ε2 ∈ {0; 1}, two distinct points z1 , z2 ∈ A2 (R, ε2 ) are said to be parallel if

(z2 − z1 )(z2 − z1 ) = 0.

Geometrically this means that the line through them is parallel to the second coor-
dinate axis when ε2 = 0, and to one of the lines x ± y = 0 if ε2 = 1. For background
material on the isotropic and on the pseudo-Euclidean geometry we refer to [25],
[22], [2, § 4], [7, § 17], and [18]. The definition of a circle in an affine CK-plane
implies that through any three non-collinear points, in the non-Euclidean case in
addition pairwise non-parallel, a unique circle passes. The circle through z1 , z2 , and
z3 will be denoted by σ(z1 , z2 , z3 ). Four points z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 , pairwise non-parallel in
the non-Euclidean case, lie on the same circle if and only if

(z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
Im = 0;
(z1 − z4 )(z2 − z3 )

see [25, p. 276]. The number

(z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
(z1 − z4 )(z2 − z3 )

is called the cross ratio of the points z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 and is denoted by [z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ].

The equation of a circle in an affine CK-plane can be written in the form

azz + bz − bz + c = 0, (1)

where a, b, c are generalized complex numbers and Re a = Re c = 0; see [25, p. 275].

The definition of a circle in an affine CK-plane also implies that two circles have at
most two common points.

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200 H. MARTINI and M. SPIROVA

3. Results and proofs

Clifford’s chain of theorems from inversive and Euclidean geometry is dis-

cussed in [3, p. 262]. In particular, Clifford’s first theorem says the following: Let
σi , i = 1, 2, 3, 4, be four circles passing through a point S, but otherwise in general
position, and let Sij be the second intersection point of σi and σj . Let σijk denote
the circle through Sij , Sik , Sjk . Then the four circles σ234 , σ134 , σ124 , σ123 all pass
through one point S1234 . We will extend this theorem to all affine CK-planes. (See
also [13] for an analogous extension to all strictly convex normed planes.)
The proof of the following lemma is immediate.

Lemma 3.1. If pi and qi , i = 1, . . . , 4, are generalized complex numbers, then

[p1 , q3 , p3 , q1 ] [p2 , q4 , p4 , q2 ]
[p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 ] [q1 , q2 , q3 , q4 ] = ,
[p3 , q2 , p2 , q3 ] [p4 , q1 , p1 , q4 ]
if all the cross ratios exist.

We use this lemma for proving the following

Theorem 3.1. (The analogue of Clifford’s first theorem) Let σi , i = 1, . . . , 4,

be four circles in an affine CK-plane passing through a point p. Let pij = p be the
corresponding second intersection point of σi and σj , i, j = 1, . . . , 4, i = j. If σijk
denotes the circle through pij , pjk , pki , i, j = 1, . . . , 4, i = j, j = k, k = i, then the
circles σ123 , σ234 , σ134 , and σ124 all pass through the same point if at least two of
them do not touch.

Proof. Let σ123 ∩ σ234 = {p23 , q}, where p23 = q. Then the numbers z1 =
[p13 , q, p12 , p23 ] and z2 = [p34 , q, p23 , p24 ] are real if q = p12 and, in addition, non-
zero if q = p24 . Applying Lemma 3.1 to the points p, p12 , p13 , p14 and p34 , q, p23 , p24 ,
we get
[p, p23 , p13 , p34 ] [p12 , p24 , p14 , q]
[p, p12 , p13 , p14 ] [p34 , q, p23 , p24 ] = ⇐⇒
[p13 , q, p12 , p23 ] [p14 , p34 , p, p24 ]
(2)
[p, p23 , p13 , p34 ] [p12 , p24 , p14 , q]
[p, p12 , p13 , p14 ] z2 = .
z1 [p14 , p34 , p, p24 ]
On the other hand, we have that the circle σl passes through p, pil , pjl , pkl , where
{i, j, k, l} = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Therefore the numbers [p, p12 , p13 , p14 ], [p, p23 , p13 , p34 ], and
[p14 , p34 , p, p24 ] are also real. Thus (2) implies that

[p12 , p24 , p14 , q]

is real, i.e., the point q lies on σ124 . If q ≡ p12 or q ≡ p24 , then evidently q ∈ σ124 .
Analogously we can prove that q also lies on σ134 .

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 CIRCLE GEOMETRY IN AFFINE CAYLEY–KLEIN PLANES 201

Unfortunately, one cannot analogously extend the next steps of Clifford’s chain
of theorems (again we refer to [3, p. 262]).
One version of the famous Theorem of Napoleon (see the survey [10]) says
that the centers of the circumcircles of the three equilateral triangles, which are
erected externally on the sides of an arbitrary triangle in the Euclidean plane, form
a equilateral triangle. Moreover, these three circles have a common point with
many interesting properties; see again [10] for details and note that this statement
was used in [14] to extend Napoleon’s theorem also to higher dimensions (see also
[5]). The latter statement was even generalized (see [16]): if three directly similar
triangles are suitably and externally [internally] erected on the sides of an arbitrary
triangle, then their circumcircles intersect in a point f [f  ], and these so-called twin
points f and f  are related by a Cremona transform of fifth degree; see also [17].
We will prove analogous statements for all affine CK-planes. (Note that in [11] we
obtained different statements related to Napoleon’s theorem which only hold for the
isotropic case.)
A triangle in A2 (R, ε2 ) whose vertices are non-parallel points is called an
admissible triangle. Throughout this article, all considered triangles are assumed to
be admissible. For the triangle with vertices z1 , z2 , and z3 we will write τ (z1 , z2 , z3 ).
Two triangles in A2 (R, ε2 ) are said to be similar if they are related to each other
by a transformation of the form

z  = αz + β, αα = 0, (3)

where α, β, z  , and z are generalized complex numbers. It is known that any direct
similitude in the Euclidean plane, any angle similitude in the isotropic plane (being
always direct; see [18, p. 16]) and any similitude in the pseudo-Euclidean plane
can be written in the form (3); see [18, § 8]. This means that, according to our
terminology, similar triangles are directly similar in the Euclidean plane and angle
similar in the isotropic plane.

Remark 3.1. Regarding the groups of similitudes, the isotropic plane is richer
than the Euclidean and the pseudo-Euclidean plane. The group of isotropic simil-
itudes (general similitudes) maps any segment into a proportional one, and any
angle into a proportional one. This group has two important subgroups – the group
of angle similitudes (similitudes of first type or equiform transformations), which
maps any angle into an equal one, and the group of length similitudes (similitudes
of second type), mapping any segment into an equal one.

To each triangle τ (z1 , z2 , z3 ) in A2 (R, ε2 ) we assign the generalized complex

number
(z1 − z3 )(z1 − z2 )−1 ,

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202 H. MARTINI and M. SPIROVA

denoted by s(z1 , z2 , z3 ) and called the shape of the triangle τ (z1 , z2 , z3 ). Two trian-
gles τ (z1 , z2 , z3 ) and τ (z1 , z2 , z3 ) in A2 (R, ε2 ) are similar if and only if s(z1 , z2 , z3 ) =
s(z1 , z2 , z3 ); see Lemma 2.1 in [21].
Now we are ready to prove the announced CK-analogue of the statement on
circumcircles related to a generalized Napoleon configuration.

Theorem 3.2. Let τ (a, b, c) be an arbitrary triangle in A2 (R, ε2 ), and

τ (a1 , b, c), τ (b, c1 , a), τ (c, a, b1 ) be similar triangles erected on the sides of τ (a, b, c).
If the circumcircles of the erected triangles do not touch each other, then they in-
tersect in the same point; see Figure 1.

Figure 1. Napoleon’s theorem in the isotropic plane

Proof. If s(a1 , b, c) = s(b, c1 , a) = s(c, a, b1 ) = λ, then

a1 − c b−a c − b1
= = = λ. (4)
a1 − b b − c1 c−a
Thus we get
c1 − a b1 − c λ
= 1 − λ and = . (5)
c1 − b b1 − a λ−1
Let σ(a1 , b, c) ∩ σ(b, c1 , a) = {b, q}, where b = q. This means that the numbers
(a1 − c) (q − b) (c1 − a) (q − b)
α = [a1 , q, c, b] = and β = [c1 , q, a, b] =
(a1 − b) (q − c) (c1 − b) (q − a)
are real. On the other hand, the equations (4) and (5) imply
q−b q−b α λ q−a
α=λ , β = (1 − λ) =⇒ = · . (6)
q−c q−c β 1−λ q−c

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 CIRCLE GEOMETRY IN AFFINE CAYLEY–KLEIN PLANES 203

From (5) and (6) we obtain

(b1 − c) (q − a) α
[b1 , q, c, a] = =− .
(b1 − a) (q − c) β
This means that the circumcircle of the triangle τ (c, a, b1 ) also passes through q.

Remark 3.2. In [20] it is proved that the centroids of the triangles τ (a1 , b, c),
τ (b, c1 , a), τ (c, a, b1 ) (see Theorem 3.2) form a triangle similar to them.

The following theorem gives the complete CK-analogue to Wood’s theorem

(cf. [23]) in the Euclidean plane, saying that if two triangles are directly similar
and perspective from a point, then either their sides are parallel in pairs, or their
circumcircles pass through the point of perspectivity; see [4] for a recent approach
via shape functions.

Theorem 3.3. (Analogue of Wood’s theorem) Let the triangles τ (a, b, c) and
τ (a , b , c ) in A2 (R, ε2 ) be similar and, also, be in perspective position with respect


to a point p. Then either the sides of τ (a, b, c) are parallel to the sides of τ (a , b , c ),
or both the quadruples a, b, c, p and a , b , c , p are cyclic.

Proof. Suppose that the point p coincides with the origin 0 of the coordinate
system. Then
a = α a, b = β b, c = γ c, (7)
where α, β, γ are real numbers. The similarity of τ (a, b, c) and τ (a , b , c ) implies
a−c a − c a−c αa−γ c
=  ⇐⇒ =
a−b a − b a−b αa−β b
⇐⇒ (α − β) ab + (β − γ) bc + (γ − α) ca = 0
⇐⇒ (α − β) (a − c) b = (α − γ) (a − b) c
(a − c) b α−γ
⇐⇒ α = β = γ or = [a, 0, c, b] = ∈ R.
(a − b) c α−β
The first case is equivalent to the fact that the sides of τ (a, b, c) and τ (a , b , c ) are
parallel. In the second case we have that the points a, b, c, 0 lie on the same circle.
But if [a, 0, c, b] is real then, by (7), [a , 0, c , b ] is also real, i.e., the points a , b , c , 0
lie on the same circle.

In [25, p. 122 and p. 196] it is proved that in the isotropic plane and in the
pseudo-Euclidean plane the radical axes of three circles are parallel or intersect
in the same point. The proofs of both these cases are different and use specific
properties of circles in the corresponding planes. In this section we present a unified
proof of this fact holding for all affine CK-planes.

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204 H. MARTINI and M. SPIROVA

Theorem 3.4. Let there be given three circles σ1 , σ2 , σ3 in A2 (R, ε2 ) with

σi ∩ σj = {pk , qk }, where {i, j, k} = {1, 2, 3}. If pi = qi for i = 1, 2, 3 and Li is
the line through pi and qi , then the lines L1 , L2 , L3 are parallel or have a common
point; see Figure 2.

Figure 2. The radical axes of three isotropic circles intersect in the same point

Proof. For i = 1, 2, 3 we have

σi : εai zz + bi z − bi z + εci = 0,

where ai , ci ∈ R and ai = 0; see (1). Thus, for {i, j, k} = {1, 2, 3} we get

εai pk pk + bi pk − bi pk + εci = 0, εaj pk pk + bj pk − bj pk + εcj = 0, (8)

εai qk qk + bi qk − bi qk + εci = 0, εaj qk pk + bj qk − bj qk + εcj = 0. (9)

By subtracting the appropriate multiples of the equations in (8), it follows that

(−aj bi + ai bj ) pk + (−aj bi + ai bj ) pk + ε(−aj ci + ai cj ) = 0.

The relations (9) yield

(−aj bi + ai bj ) qk + (−aj bi + ai bj ) qk + ε(−aj ci + ai cj ) = 0.

Hence the points pk and qk satisfy the equation

uk z − uk z + vk = 0, (10)

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 CIRCLE GEOMETRY IN AFFINE CAYLEY–KLEIN PLANES 205

where uk = −aj bi + ai bj and vk = ε(−aj ci + ai cj ). Since ai , aj , ci , cj are real, (10)

is the equation of a line; see [25, p. 273]. More precisely, (10) is the equation of Lk .
We will show that for {i, j, k} = {1, 2, 3} the equation of Lk is a linear combination
of the equations of Li and Lj . Indeed, we have

Li : (−ak bj + aj bk ) z + (−ak bj + aj bk ) z + ε(−ak cj + aj ck ) = 0 (11)

and
Lj : (−ai bk + ak bi ) z + (−ai bk + ak bi ) z + ε(−ai ck + ak ci ) = 0. (12)
Multiplying (11) by ai and (12) by aj and adding these equations, we get

(−aj bi + ai bj ) z + (−aj bi + ai bj ) z + ε(−aj ci + ai cj ) = 0.

Thus the proof is done.

Acknowledgement

The authors are very grateful to Yulian Tsankov (Sofia) for preparing the
figures.

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