BIOLOGI INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT

2021/2022

NAME NURUL HIDAYAH BINTI SAIFUL ANUAR

CLASS M6T27
MATRIC NO. MS2117120250
LECTURE PUAN NOR HIDAYANI BINTI SEMON
R
QUESTION QUESTION 1
NO.
 DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical
replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule. DNA is made up of double
helix of two complementary strands. DNA replication occurs in all living
organisms essential for growth process and repairing a damaged tissue.
Mechanisms of DNA replication consist of replication fork formation, primer
binding and elongation.

Figure 1 DNA replication

Replication fork formation occurs by opening the origin of replication.
Enzyme helicase helps to unzip the double strand of DNA into a ‘Y’ shape
known as replication fork by breaking the hydrogen bond. After unzipping, two
single strands produced and act as a template for replication. Untwisting double
helix causes tighter twisting and strain of the replication fork. Enzyme
topoisomerase helps relieve this strain by breaking, swivelling and re-joining
DNA strands.

Figure 1.1 Replication fork of DNA replication

 Next step is primer binding. Once DNA separated, a short strand of
RNA binds to 3’ end direction. The starting point of replication is at the primer
that always binds. The primers are produced by the enzyme primase. DNA
strand who work as a template, enzyme primase starts a complementary RNA
chain from single RNA nucleotide and adding more RNA nucleotides one at a
time.
After that, enzyme DNA polymerase creates a new strand by elongation.
DNA polymerase III binds to strand at the site of the primer and adding new
base pairs that complement to RNA primer and adding DNA nucleotides
continuously. Replication proceeds in 5’ to 3’ direction causes it to form a
newly strand. Replication begins with lagging strand binds to multiple primers.
Each primer only apart from each other by several bases. Then, DNA
polymerase III add pieces of DNA called as Okazaki fragment to the strand
between primers. DNA polymerase I replaces RNA nucleotides of adjacent
primer with DNA nucleotides after Okazaki fragments formed.

Figure 1.2 Lagging strand and Leading strand

Last step of DNA replication is termination. Termination started when
both continuous and discontinuous strands formed, enzyme exonuclease
removes all RNA primers from original strands. The primers replaced with
appropriate bases. Exonuclease proofreads the new DNA to check, remove and
replace any errors. Enzyme DNA ligase joined Okazaki fragments to form a
single unified strand. Enzyme telomerase catalyzes the synthesis of telomere
sequences at the end of DNA. Once completed, the parents strand and its
complementary DNA strand coils into double helix shape. Replications of
produce two DNA molecules completed.
Mitosis is the division of the genetic material in nucleus resulting two daughter
nuclei that contained same number of chromosomes and genetic material as the
parents. Mitosis divide into 4 stages which are prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase.

Figure 2.1 Prophase

In prophase, chromosomes become condensed, shortened, tightly coiled and
become visible. The chromosomes appear as sister chromatids. After the mitotic
spindle formed, centrosomes move away from each other by lengthening
microtubules until they reached the opposite poles.

Figure 2.2 Metaphase

After centrosomes arrived at opposite poles, chromosomes start to align at the
metaphase plate. For each chromosome, kinetochores of sister chromatids
attached to kinetochores microtubules.
 Figure 2.3 Anaphase
Centrosomes divide and sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
Once separated, they considered as daughter chromosome. Anaphase is over
when the chromosomes reached the end of the cell.

Figure 2.4 Telophase

Daughter nuclei appear. Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen and become
chromatin fibre. Mitotic spindle disappears and nuclear envelopes arise.
Nucleoli appear. Nuclear division into two genetically identical completed.
References
1. edbiologykmpk.jimdofree.com/sb015-bioscore/ ( chapter 6)
2. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication retrieved 22-08-2021
3. edbiologykmpk.jimdofree.com/sb015-bioscore/ (chapter 3)
4. ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-biology/16-cell-division/
mitosis.html