CHAPTER 8

Fluid Mechanics

How do ships float and airplanes fly? Such question can be answered by
studying how objects behave in fluids. A fluid is a collection of molecules that are
randomly arranged and held together by weak cohesive forces and by the forces
exerted by the walls of a container. Most substances can be solid, liquid, or gas. Both
liquids and gases are fluids. In this module, we will study the mechanics of fluid at
rest (fluid statics) and fluids in motion (fluid dynamics).

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Take note of the prerequisites before you proceed in this module.
You should be able to: Where to learn the content
1. Manipulate algebraic expressions High School Algebra

OBEJCTIVES
After finishing this module, you should be able to:
1. Calculate the buoyant force that a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it
2. How to use Bernoulli’s equation to relate pressure and flow speed at different
points in certain types of flow.

KEY CONCEPTS

Pressure,P , is defined force per unit area. Pressure is a

scalar quantity. When a fluid (either liquid or gas) is
at rest, it exerts a force perpendicular to any surface
in contact with it, such as a container wall or a body
immersed in the fluid. Fluids do not sustain shearing
stresses or tensile stresses; therefore, the only stress
that can be exerted on an object submerged in a static
fluid is one that tends to compress the object from all Figure 8.1 At any point on the
surface of a submerged object,
sides. The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa). the force exerted by the fluid is
𝐹 perpendicular to the surface of
𝑃≡ the object.
𝐴 Physics for Scientists and
Engineers, 7th Ed

1𝑃𝑎 ≡ 1𝑁/𝑚2

If pressure varies over an area, the infinitesimal force 𝑑𝐹 on an infinitesimal surface

element of area
𝑑𝐴 is 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑃𝑑𝐴
where P is the pressure at the location of the area 𝑑𝐴.
Density, 𝝆, - is, defined as an object’s
mass per unit volume. A
homogeneous material such as ice
or iron has the same density
throughout. The SI unit of density
is kg/m3.

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

The specific gravity of a material is the

ratio of its density to the density of water at 4.0 °C, 1000kg/m3 it is a pure
number without units. For example, the specific gravity of aluminum is 2.7.

An ideal fluid is an incompressible fluid.

Atmospheric pressure, Pa, is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure at
the bottom of this sea of air in which we live. This pressure varies with
weather changes and with elevation.

1𝑃𝑎 = 1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101325𝑃𝑎 = 1.013𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 1013 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟

Pressure changes relative to a position. Water pressure is greater at

depths compared to when nearer the surface. Likewise,
atmospheric pressure decreases as we go to higher altitude.

Consider an ideal fluid of density 𝜌 at rest as shown in

Figure 8.2. Let us select a sample of the liquid contained within an
imaginary cylinder of cross-sectional area A extending from depth
d to depth 𝑑 + ℎ. The liquid external to the sample exerts forces at
all points on the surface of the sample, perpendicular to the Figure 8.2 A sample of fluid
(darker region) in a larger
surface. volume of fluid is singled
The pressure exerted by the liquid on the bottom face of the out. The net force exerted
sample is P. on the sample of fluid must
be zero because it is in
The pressure on the top face is P0. equilibrium.
The upward force exerted by the outside fluid on the Physics for Scientists and Engineers,
7th Ed
bottom of the cylinder has a magnitude PA.
The downward force exerted on the top has a magnitude P0A.
The mass of liquid in the cylinder is 𝑀 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ.
The weight of the liquid in the cylinder is 𝑀𝑔 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔.

Because the cylinder is in equilibrium, the net force acting on it must be zero.
Choosing upward to be the positive y direction,
𝛴𝐹⃑ = 𝑃𝐴𝑗̂ − 𝑃0 𝐴𝑗̂ − 𝑀𝑔𝑗̂ = 0
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃0 𝐴 − 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔 = 0
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
“The pressure P at a depth h below a point in the liquid at which the pressure is P 0 is greater
by an amount ρgh.” –variation of pressure with depth

Pascal’s Law, named after French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) states that a
change in the pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every point of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

The best example of the application of Pascal’s Law is the hydraulic press (Figure
8.3).

Figure 8.3 Simplified diagram of a hydraulic press

Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 7th Ed

A force of magnitude F1 is applied to a small piston of surface area A1. The

pressure is transmitted through an incompressible liquid to a larger piston of surface
area A2. Pressure must be the same on both sides of the press.
𝐹1 𝐹2
𝑃= =
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐴2
𝐹2 = 𝐹
𝐴1 1
The “output” force F2 on the piston with a larger area is greater than F1
𝐴
which is applied on the piston with the smaller area by a factor 𝐴2 .
1
The volume of liquid pushed down on the left as the piston moves downward
through a displacement Δx1 equals the volume of liquid pushed up on the right as
the right piston moves upward through a displacement Δx2.
That is,
𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2
Therefore,
𝐴2 ∆𝑥1
=
𝐴1 ∆𝑥2
𝐹2 ∆𝑥1
=
𝐹1 ∆𝑥2
𝐹1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝐹2 ∆𝑥2

Each side of the equation is the work

done by the force on its respective piston. The
works done on each piston are equal
(conservation of energy). Figure 8.4 An object immersed in a fluid displaces a volume of
the fluid equal to the volume of the object. The weight of the
displaced fluid is equal to the mass of the displaced fluid times the
acceleration due to gravity. The buoyant force exerted by the fluid
on the immersed object is equal in magnitude to the weight of the
displaced fluid.
Buoyant force is the upward force exerted by a fluid on any immersed object.

Archimedes Principle, named after Archimedes (287-212BC), states that the

magnitude of the buoyant force on an object always equals the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object.

The pressure, Pbottom, at the bottom of the object in Figure 8.4 is greater than the
pressure at the top, Ptop, by an amount
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔ℎ
where h is the height of the cube and ρfluid is the density of the fluid.

The difference of the pressures results to the buoyant force, ⃑𝑩

⃑⃑, which has a
magnitude of
𝐵 = (𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 )𝐴 = (𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔ℎ)𝐴
𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑉
where 𝑉 = 𝐴ℎ is the volume of the fluid displaced by the object.

The mass of the displaced fluid is

𝑀 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉
then
𝐵 = 𝑀𝑔
weight of fluid id
𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑀𝑔
therefore
𝐵 = 𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (Archimedes Principle)

Figure 8.5 Iron, the major component in shipbuilding, cannot

float on water because it is much denser than water. However,
shipbuilders design the shape of the ship in such a way that it
displaces an amount of water that weighs equal to or greater
than the total weight of the ship. The buoyant force on the ship
must be more than enough to support the weight of the ship.
This is why ships, though made of material much denser than
water, float on water.
Cunard.co.uk

Types of Fluid Flow

1. Laminar flow - each particle of the fluid follows a
smooth path such that the paths of different particles
never cross each other. Every fluid particle arriving
at a given point has the same velocity.
2. Turbulent flow – irregular flow characterized by
whirlpool-like regions.

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to Figure 8.6 Laminar Flow (top) and
Turbulent Flow (bottom)
deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to
the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than
water.

Assumptions in Ideal Fluid Flow

1. The fluid is nonviscous. Internal friction in the fluid is neglected.
2. The flow is steady. All particles passing through a point have the same
velocity
3. The fluid is incompressible. The density of the fluid is constant.
4. The flow is irrotational. The fluid has no angular momentum at any point.

Equation of Continuity
Consider an ideal fluid passing through a tube entering
the opening with area A1 and out of the end with area A2. The
mass of fluid that crosses A1 at time interval Δt is equal to the
mass of fluid that crosses A2 in the same time interval.
That is
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝜌𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Bernoulli’s Equation
As a fluid moves through a region where its speed or
Figure 8.7 Demonstrating the Equation
elevation above the of Continuity.
Earth’s surface changes, the pressure in the fluid varies with
these changes. The relationship between fluid speed, pressure, and elevation was
first derived in 1738 by Swiss physicist Daniel Bernoulli.
The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of
the conservation of energy principle appropriate for flowing fluids.

Consider the diagram in Figure 8.7 showing a

segment of fluid flowing through a tube. The force
exerted by the fluid on the left end of the segment is
𝐹1 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 . The work done by this force on the segment
is in a time interval Δt is 𝑊1 = 𝐹1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝑃1 𝑉,
where V is the volume of portion 1 at point 1 which is of
equal volume with portion 2 at point 2 because the fluid
Figure 8.8 Diagram of Laminar Fluid
is incompressible.
flow in a tube with ends of different
cross-sectional areas The work done by the fluid to the right of the
th
Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 7 Ed segment in the same time interval Δt is 𝑊2 =
−𝑃2 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2 = −𝑃2 𝑉.
The net work done on the segment by these forces is
𝑊 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑉
The kinetic energy, 𝐾𝑢𝑛𝑠 , of the unshaded portion is constant during
time interval because the fluid is incompressible.
The change in the kinetic energy of the segment of fluid is
1 1 1 1
∆𝐾 = ( 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐾𝑢𝑛𝑠 ) − ( 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝐾𝑢𝑛𝑠 ) = 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12
2 2 2 2
where m is the mass of both portion 1 and 2.
There is no change in the gravitational potential energy, 𝑈𝑢𝑛𝑠 ,of the unshaded
portion during the time interval.
The change in the gravitational potential energy is
∆𝑈 = (𝑚𝑔𝑦2 + 𝑈𝑢𝑛𝑠 ) − (𝑚𝑔𝑦1 + 𝑈𝑢𝑛𝑠 ) = 𝑚𝑔𝑦2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦1

Total work done on the system by the fluid

𝑊 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈
which gives us
1 1
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦1
2 2

Dividing each term by portion volume V (recall 𝜌 = 𝑚/𝑉) gives

1 1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑣22 − 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 − 𝜌𝑔𝑦1
2 2

1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2
2 2
1 2
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
Bernoulli’s Equation as applied to an ideal fluid
This shows that the pressure of a fluid decreases as the speed of flow increases. If the
fluid is at rest then

𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Figure 8.9 A cross-section of a wing defines an airfoil shape.

The airflow changes direction as it passes the airfoil and follows a path that is curved downward. According to Newton's second
law, this change in flow direction requires a downward force applied to the air by the airfoil. Then Newton's third law requires
the air to exert an upward force on the airfoil; thus a reaction force, lift, is generated opposite to the directional change. In the
case of an airplane wing, the wing exerts a downward force on the air and the air exerts an upward force on the wing. Lift is
always accompanied by a drag force, which is the component of the surface force parallel to the flow direction.
Sample Problems

1. In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small
piston that has a circular cross section of radius 5.00 cm. This pressure is
transmitted by a liquid to a piston that has a radius of 15.0 cm.
(A) What force must the compressed air exert to lift a car weighing 13 300 N?

(B) What air pressure produces this force?

2. An iceberg floating in seawater

as shown in the Figure is
extremely dangerous because
most of the ice is below the
surface. This hidden ice can
damage a ship that is still a
considerable distance from the
visible ice. What fraction of the iceberg lies below the water level?

3. A living room has floor dimensions of 3.5 m and 4.2 m and a height of 2.4 m.
(A) What does the air in the room weigh when the air pressure is 1.0 atm?

(B) What is the magnitude of the atmosphere’s downward force on the top of your
head, which we take to have an area of 0.040 m2?

4. A large man sits on a four-legged chair with his feet off the floor. The combined mass
of the man and chair is 95.0 kg. If the chair legs are circular and have a radius of
0.500 cm at the bottom, what pressure does each leg exert on the floor?
5. (a) Calculate the absolute pressure at the bottom of a freshwater lake at a point whose
depth is 27.5 m. Assume the density of the water is 1.00 x 103 kg/m3 and that the air
above is at a pressure of 101.3 kPa. (b) What force is exerted by the water on the
window of an underwater vehicle at this depth if the window is circular and has a
diameter of 35.0 cm?