Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2434-48 https:dtorg/10.1007/510163-021-01333-1 ‘SPECIAL FEATURE: ORIGINAL ARTICLE ‘7th 3R International Scientific Conference (7th 3RINCs 2021) Characterization of compaction and CBR properties of recycled concrete aggregates for unbound road base and subbase materials in Vietnam Hong Nam Thai!2@ . Tien Dung Nguyen? Van Tuan Nguyen? Hoang Giang Nguyen? - Ken Kawamoto! Received: 1 June 2021 / Accepted: 22 November 2021 / Published online: 26 November 2021 © Springer lapan KK, part of Springer Nature 2021 Abstract Mechanical properties of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) such as compaction and California bearing ratio (CBR) are important for application as unbound road base and subbase materials. Limited studies, however, have examined the effects of the nominal maximum particle diameter (Dy) of aggregates and fines content (F,;<0.075 mm). Also, particle rearrange~ ‘ment and breakage depend on water content (#) (ie., water states of aggregates) under the compaction process. In this study, therefore, a series of compaction and CBR tests at different compaction energies (E,) and w was carried in the laboratory using graded RCA with Dy. of 25 mm and 37.5 mm and four different F, ranging from 0 to 20%, The results showed that the compaction properties of RCA were controlled by E, and w. Based on the analysis of water states of aggregates, it can be understood that water existed in the capillary region for maximum dry density and existed at the boundary between capillary and hygroscopic regions for minimum dry density. The maximum measured CBR values were attained at F,=5% for both ‘mm and 37.5 mm. The breakage of samples became enhanced with increasing E, and weakened with increasing F, Keywords Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) - Compaction - California Bearing Ratio (CBR) - Particle breakage - Water states Introduction Due to rapid urbanization and population growth, the gen- eration of construction and demolition waste (CDW) is rap- idly increasingly in Southeast Asia including Vietnam [1] thas been reported that the daily discharge of total solid ‘waste reached more than 38,000 tons in 2015 in Vietnam, and CDW accounts for 10-15% of the total solid waste [2, 3]. However, only 1-2% of CDW was recycled [2]. Hoang etal. [4] conducted a survey at 15 construction and demoli- tion sites in Hanoi (the capital of Vietnam) and indicated that only 10% of CDW was recycled. CDW recycling rates 2 Hong Nam Tas ‘umn nce "Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 285 Shimo-olubo, Sakura-ke, Saitama City, Saitama Prefectare 338-8870, Japan Hanoi University of Civil Engineering, Ba Trung, Hanoi, Vietnam Phong, Hai © springer in other provinces in Vietnam might be lower than in Hanoi due to less stringent enforcement of CDW management [4] Lockrey et al. [5] estimated that the total amount of CDW generated in Vietnam will reach approximately 11 million tons in 2025. Nguyen et al. (6] reported that approximately 2200 apartment buildings (~6 million m? of floor space) were built in 1970-1980's, of which approximately 90% are seriously degraded and needed to be renovated or demol- ished, As well as the rapid increase of CDW generation, unrestrained disposal and illegal dumping of CDW has become a serious social problem [6], causing risks to human health and the environment, such as air pollution due ¢o dust and water contamination, transport obstacles, degradation of the urban landscape, and economic loss. Reuse and reeyeling of CDW, therefore, are regarded as important means of not only saving energy and natural resources, but also conserv- ing the environment and economic aspects. In the past several decades, developed countries such as Japan, USA, Australia, and members of the BU have developed technical standards for reeycling CDW. AmongJournal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2834-48 8 CDW, waste concrete is a popular recyclable material, and the recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) are used inten- sively in road construction as unbound base and subbase terials [7-10]. The unbound base and subbase layers in the road pavement structure are important layers because they bear the wheel oad transmitted from the road surface and distribute a part of the load to the subgrade (exist- ing soil). To maintain the performance and longevity of ‘road pavement structure, therefore, many studies have been done to characterize the mechanical properties of RCA such as compaction, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), shear strength, and resilience characteristics for appli tion as unbound road base and subbase materials. For example, Thai etal. [I] conducted an intensive review of the effects of particle size and type of aggregate on the mechanical properties of RCA. They reported that the mechanical indices [e.g the maximum dry density (MDD) and CBR} depend highly on not only the type of aggre- gates, but also the nominal maximum particle size (Day) of aggregates and fines content (, kg/kg in % typically, the particle size of fines <0.075 mm). In the field of geotechnical engineering, itis well known that the water content (w) of tested samples is an important factor to control the compaction properties of soil and granu Jar materials [12-15]. Depending on the intial w of materi- als, the density of compacted samples varies, changing the mechanical properties such as compressive strengths and deformation under static and eyelic loading (16-19], as well as the particle breakage induced by compaction [20-23] Based on the viewpoint of soil science and soil mechan- ies, moreover, water retained in soil and granular materials, including unbound RCA, has different water states as a fune- tion of w. Generally, the water is categorized into three states from wet todry conditions: (1) gravitational water: water can move freely under the impact of gravity; 2) capillary water: water is held by capillary forces through menisci between grain particles: and (3) hygroscopic water: water is absorbed. Inside grain particles and/or bound strongly on the surface of grain particles strongly [24]. Many studies have paid atten- tion to the compaction properties of RCA as affected by vari ations of the initial w of samples: however, till now limited studies have investigated the relationships between the water states and the compaction behaviour of RCA. This study, therefore, focused on the compaction and CBR properties of RCA and had the following objectives: (ito investigate the effects of Dy, and F. of graded RCA on the mechanical indices of compaction and CBR tests; (ii) to understand the relationships between water states and com- paction behaviour by analysing water states of aggregates: and (iii) to examine the effects of compaction energy and. material properties (Dy, and F,) on particle breakage by measuring % increment/decrement of each particle traction before and after compaction. Materials and methods Tested materials Conerete waste was collected from Thanh Tri landfill in Hanoi, Vietnam, The conerete waste was crushed, sieved, and graded in the laboratory to prepare graded RCA for a series of laboratory tests. The graded RCA were prepared With two different Dyyy of 25 and 37.5 mm, and four differ- ent F, of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 20%. In this Study, Dy =25 mm, and 37.5 mm are the nominal maximum particle diameters of tested samples. The actual maximum particle diameter for Day 25 mm Was 37.5 mm and that OF Dy = 37-5 mm Was 50 mm [25]. The particle size distributions (PSD) of graded RCA used in this study are shown in Fig. 1. The photos of tested samples were shown in Fig. 2. Basie physical properties of tested samples were meas- ured following the American Standards for Testing of Mate- rials (ASTM), Japan Industrial Standards (JIS), Japanese Geotechnical Society (JGS), and Vietnamese standards and are shown in Table 1. It can be seen that all physical properties of tested samples in this study met the technical requirements for road base and subbase materials regulated 2) ig = | at ‘ar Hi 0 Too fo) Po 375 0m Fig. 1 Particle size distributions of tested RCA samples i this study ‘im and b Dy,.=37.5 mm springer36 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2434-48 (0 Bs =375 rm, F=0% Ppa = 31S 0 F=SH Fig.2. Photos of tested samples by Vietnamese standard TCVN 8859:2011 [25] and the Japan Road Association GRA, 2010) [26] ‘Thrce fractions including coarse aggregates (2 4.75 mm). fine aggregates (<4.75 mm), and fines (< 0.075 mm) were prepared to measure the chemical components and envi- ronmental safety properties. The measurement of chemical components of specimens was carried out by a fundamental parameter method of energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (FP-EDX) (see Table All in Appendix). The major elements were Ca and Si. Water and acid-extractable heavy metals were measured following the testing methods in Japan (27, 28] (see Table A2 in Appendix). All meas- ured parameters were lower than those in the environmental standard in Japan [29]. Test methods Compaction test and characterization of particle breakage ‘The compaction test was carried out following the Modi- fied Proctor compaction method described in TCVN 12790:2020 [30] and ASTM D 1557:2012 [31]. ASTM. standard describes that materials with particle sizes smaller than 19 mm, and less than 30% by mass of the material retained on 19 mm sieve can be used method C with a diameter mould of 150 mm [31]. Basically, the D Springer Dan =37S mm, = 10% an =37S mF, =20% materials used in this study met this requirement except for samples with F, =0%. However, because % by mass of the ‘material retained on 19 mm sieve of samples with F,=0% were not significantly greater than 30% (i.e., 31.16 and 31.58%), they can be accepted for the compaction test. In the compaction test, tested samples were compacted in a cylindrical mould with a diameter of 150 mm and height of 125 mm using a rammer (4.54 kg) with a dropping height of 457 mm, The samples were compacted with five lay~ ers, and three different numbers of blows (i.., compaction energy, E,) were applied for the compaction; 12 blows for E, = 580 kJ/m’, 56 blows for E,=2631 kim’, and 112 blows for £,=5262 ki/m'. To determine the compaction curve, measured dry density (DD, g/cm) vs. water con- tent (w, kg/kg in %), the w values of tested samples were adjusted ranging in 0.5-12% by air-drying and adding ‘water to the samples from field water content (w=5-9%%).. To characterize the particle breakage after compaction, the tested samples were sieved to measure the retained ‘mass of each size sieve. Then, the retained mass was used to caleulate % inerement and/or decrement in each size fraction. In addition, overall particle breakage was est mated by following Marsal’s method! [32]. In this method, the particle breakage index (B,) can be calculated using the data on PSD curves before and after compaction and is given in Bq, (I):Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2834-48 Ea Table 1 Physical and chemical properties of tested RCA materials Properties Unit Measured values TCVN S859 JRA GOIOF “Testing methods ou" Typel Type RM-AD (base) RC-A0 wubbase) Specific gravity (G,) gem? 2.7200) ae 7 ‘ASTM C128.01 (2001), JIS ‘81202 (2000) Liquid mie = ma ss - 7 ASTM 4318-00 (2000), 18 ‘A120 (2020) Plastic mit p* % Be) a | . ASTM 4318-00 (2000), IS ‘81205 (2020) Pasticity index (P) - 100 <6 <6 <4 <6 ASTM D4318.00 2000), JIS ‘81205 (2020) Elongationand Flakiness. == 5(I7) sis - - TCVN 7572-13 (2006), index Los Angeles abrasion (LA) 33.8) <35 S40 - 30 ASTM C131/C131M-20 (2020) J18 A121 2007) Water absorption (vy) Coarse agaregate(24.78mm) %& S211) oo | . ASTM C127-01 (2001) JIS Fine aggresate (<4.75 mm) 85(04) a = . ALLO (2020), ASTM C128.01 (2001), JIS ‘ALIO9 (2020) pH Coane aggregate(24.75mm) - 11.905) oe = 7 3G 0211 (2000) Fine aggrezate (4.75 mm) — 11.705) ee e Fines (<02075 mm) = 1905) se e Electrical conductivity (EC) Coarse aggregate (24.75 mm) mSVem 3.46.1) =] 3G 0212 2009) Fine aggregate (<4.75 mm) Fines (<00075 mm) Siem 2.04.1) mle 27(23) *Mcasured using samples with particle size <0.42S mm TCVN 8859 2011) [25]. Aggregate bases and subhases of pavemen Span Road Association GRA) (2010) [26}: Technical requien Famation. Japan Average values of triplicate measurements are given Values inthe pa ‘sructure ~ material, construction, and acceptance. Vietnam of recycled aggregates for roadbed materials, Handbook on Pavement Ree- renthesis are coeticient of variation (CV in %). Technical requirements in TTCVN 8859 (2011) and JRA (2010), and testing methods are also given wo Apd, where Apa, is the positive difference in percentage by ‘weight of material retained on the nth sieve between before and after the compaction test. CBR test ‘The CBR test was carried out following a method in TCVN 12792:2020 [33] and AASHTO T193:2013 [34]. In the CBR test, samples were compacted in a eylindrical mould with a diameter of 150 mm and height of 125 mm using a rammer (4.54 kg) with a dropping height of 457 mm. The w of tested samples for the CBR test was adjusted initially to equal the ‘optimum moisture content from the measured compaction curve. For the CBR test, the tested samples were compacted at three different £,=470, 1400, and 3050 kW/m? by changing ‘number of blows (10, 30, and 65 blows/layer). The compacted samples were soaked for 96 hin water, and the expansionicon- traction of the soaked samples was monitored with a dial gauge attached over the surcharge loacl. Afier the soaking, excess water was removed. Then, a standard plunger of 50 mim diam- eter was pushed into the sample atthe rate of 1.0 mm/min up to 12.5 mm depth, and the CBR at 2.5 and 5.0 mm penetration depths (CBR2.5 and CBRS) were measured, and the CBR of a tested sample was selected following a criterion in the stanc- ard method. In this study, the CBR at two different degree of compaction, K=95% and 98% were calculated. ‘Measurements of water potential energy of tested samples and water states After the compaction test, water potential energy (Iyi, kPa) of the tested samples was measured by a dewpoint springer38 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2434-48. Table2 Eefcctive saturation of RCA samples Eifecive saturation 53) 5 mm o sl 10 20 10 20 5.4 MDD" nr) 08s (OST 07076 Om S,atmbD* 038 038 035 0 OM oss Sco fine aggregates? 020-025 022-028 024.029 025-031 16-017 018-020 020-022 Seana (Coune-+fineageregates” 043-051 043-057 044056 043-053 042-043 042-046 043-046 Residual volumetric water content, values for calelatingS, were 0012 (em em) for Dy, =25 mm and 0.014 (emYem’) for Dy = 5, uy and S, gus Values Were calculated using the minimum and maximum dry density (mDD and MDD) inthe compaction curves potential meter (WP4-T, Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA, USA). Five samples (~20 g) were taken from each compaction mould and measured. The ly! for each sample was determined by averaging the measured lyl values of the five samples. ‘To estimate the water state at the boundary between gravitational and capillary regions of tested RCA sam- ples, a water retention curve (WRC) under the main drying process (from saturation to air-dry) was measured using a combination of a hanging-water column method (ly! range from 0 to 6 kPa), a pressure chamber method (iyi range from 10 to 1000 kPa), and a dewpoint potential meter (iyl range > 1000 kPa). Apparatus for measurement of water potential energy, and water retention curve was shown in Fig. 3. The tested sample was first compacted and soaked in water to saturate it, and subsequently the sample was drained to the desired lyl values, After measurements of WRC from saturation to air-dry, the measured values were fitted to a Brooks-Corey (BC) mode! [35]: { (es) vl > Iwsd . PT" dwt < wb 0-9, 3-8, where S, is the effective saturation, 4, 6,, and 8, are the ‘measured volumetric water content at the desired lyd (em'/ ‘cm), residual volumetric water content (cny'/em*), and satu- rated volumetric water content (em"/em*), respectively. It is noted that @ can be converted by the measured water content (0») as = DD x(w/100) (where DD is the dry density of a tested sample in gicm?). The lyj] is the air-entry or bubbling. ‘water potential energy (kPa), and the / is the pore size distri- bution index. In this study, the estimated ly) value was used as the boundary water potential energy between gravitational capillary regions. ‘The water state at the boundary between capillary and Iygroscopic regions was assumed to be the sum of the maxi- mum adsorbed water in fine and coarse aggregates in this study, Using the water absorption (w,,,) of coarse and fine aggregates in Table |, the maximum volumetric adsorbed water of coarse aggregates can be calculated by @,=m, x (gn /100)/V [where m, is the mass of coarse aggregates in the tested sample (g), Wap. i8 the water absorption of coarse aggregates (g/g in %). and Vis the volume of the sample (cm’)]. Likewise, the maximum volumetric adsorbed ‘water of fine aggregates can be calculated by 8,= 1X ana ‘LOOVV [where mis the mass of fine ageregates in the tested sample (g) and ,,,yis the water absorption of fine aggre~ gates (g/g in %)]. Then, 6, and 0, values were converted to (a) Hanging-water method Fig.3. Apparatus for measurement of water potential ener, and water reten © springer (b) Pressure chamber method (© Dewpoint potential meterJournal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2434-48 3» the effective saturations using 8, and 8, in Eq, (2). The effec- {ive saturations of adsorbed water in fine and coarse aggre- gates were labelled 5,4, and S, yz a8 Shown in Table 2. Results and discus: n Compaction curves of tested samples Measured compaction curves (relationships between DD and ) and relationships between DD and water potential energy (Iyi) of tested RCA samples With Da, =25 and 37.5 mm and four different F, values are exemplified in Fig. 4 (E,=2631 ki/m'). As can be seen in the figure, the aximum dry density (MDD) was observed close to zero void curves (ZVC) for both tested samples of Dy... =25 and 37.5 mm at w=9.5-105% (vag optimum water content) ig. 4a and ©) corresponding to lyi= 350-650 kPa (Fig. und d). It can be seen that MDD values depended on F,, and higher MDD values appeared in the samples with F, =5% and 10% compared to those with F, =0% and 20%, and this tendeney was consistent in each £, condition (see Fig. 7a and b). The comparison ofthe MDD between RCA and natu- ral aggregates (NA) such as gravel, crushed limestone. etc can be seen from Figs, 7a and b, NA had higher MDD than RCA regarless of Dx and F,.This might be because NA is Jess porous and has higher particle density than RCA [7,11 tis worth noting that the minimum dry density (mDD) was ‘observed for all tested samples at w'=6-7% (corresponding 550-1550 kPa). This phenomenon is called “bulking” im the fields of geotechnical engineering and soil mechan- ies 12, 13, 36}. The “bulking” normally occurs with cohe- sionless and partially saturated soil in which the capillary forve resist rearrangements of grains under the compaction process, To clarify the relationships between moisture contents corresponding to MDD and mDD and their relations to water potential energy for tested RCA, a compaction curve and the corresponding water potential are illustrated in Fig. 5 As described above, the MDD appeared close to ZVC at W,», (corresponding 5,=80-90%). The mDD appeared 6-7%, and then DD increased again with drying (decreasing of w). In the air-dried condition (left end in the figure), the DD showed either a continuous increase close to MDD (F,=5% and 10%) or a slight drop again (F,=0and 20%). The field water content of tested samples (meaning that initial water content after sample preparation) became ‘5.9% in this study. This implies that the compaction may induce the bulking of grains (low degree of compaction) ‘without controlling the initial water content. at'w Water states retained in compacted samples Relationships between effective saturation (S,) and water potential energy (ly!) for measured compaction data are plotted in Fig. 6. In the figure, measured WRC data under » we (@)Dyge~ 375 m0 ToT ea ‘Water content, w (% F=0% = Fig.4 Compaction curves and relatonsh Day =37.5 mm. The measured data at =2631 Wi ae given 3 between water potential (ly) and dry density (DD) for tested material. (8, B) Dye a a a rT Water potenti, (KPa) = 10% 25 mm and (€, springer«0 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2434-48. oo) DD «gem po} et (So w0-90%0) Fig.5-Iusration of compaction curve and relationship between water poten the main drying process and a fitted curve by BC model [Eq. (2)] are given. In addition, the estimated effective saturations of adsorbed water in fine aggregates (S,ay,1) and adsorbed water in fine and coarse aggregates (5, y.2) in Table 2 are given in shaded bars. From the BC model, the air-entry water potential energy (Iyj)) was estimated as 0.23 kPa, and this value is assumed to be the boundary between gravitational and capillary regions for the water states of tested RCA samples. The calculated S, .y.2 ranged in 0.43-0.57 for Dyag=25 mm (Fig. 6a) and 0.42-0.46 for 17.5 mm (Fig. 6b), and these values corresponded. }000-20,000 kPa in the WRC under the main dry- ing process, The §, .,2.¢an be assumed to be the boundary between capillary and hygroscopic regions of water states. In the figure, the MDD values are plotted higher than S,apc2 and close to lyi= 1000 kPa for both Dyyj,=25 mm and 37.5 mm, This can be understood to mean that the water state of tested samples at MDD is in the capillary region, ‘The mDD values (S,=0.34-0.58), on the other hand, were plotted at the boundary between capillary and hygroscopic regions, suggesting the water of tested samples at mDD co- existed as adsorbed water in aggregate particles and a thin water film surrounding the aggregate particles. Especially, the high capillary force induced by the thin water film sur- rounding the particles impeded the rearrangement of par cles during the compaction process, resulting in the appear- ance of “bulking” in the compaction curves (Figs. 4 and 5), Particle breakage under compaction process ‘The Marsal’s breakage index (B,) of tested compacted sam- ples at wig, Were calculated by Eq. (1), and shown asa fune- tion of Fin Fig 7. Inthe figure, MDD values from the com- paction test (Fig. 4 and Table A3) and CBR values from the CBR test (described in the following section) are also shown {o compare the effects of Fon these indives. The B, values increasing E, for both Dyax =25 mim (Fig. 7e) mm (Fig. 74). The maximum B, values at 262 kl/m’ were recorded at F,=0%, and the © springer y= S50-1550 KP) 17 7 10 Wier pots yf 3) ergy (ly) and dry density (DD) for RCA samples BB, values became almost constant at E, =580 ki/m?. These ‘observations indicate that low F, samples were more break- able at higher compaction energies. High F, samples, on the other hand, were less breakable probably due to a cushion- ing effect of fines (< 0.075 mm). It is noted, however, that those properties of breakability and cushioning (i... high and low in B,) depending on the difference of F, did not clearly appear in the compaction density, and the measured MDD values did not change between the tested samples with 0% and 20¢% (Fig. Ta and b). To examine details of the combinational effects of w and E,,on particle breakage under the compaction process, meas- ured values of the % increment and/or decrement in each particle fraction before and after compaction for tested sam- ples with Djq,=25 mm and 37.5 mm are shown in Figs. § and 9. These figures characterize clearly the mode of particle breakage in each fraction at different w conditions, catego- ricing the fractions into coarse aggregates (2 4,75 mm), fine aggregates (< 4.75 mm), and fines (<0.075 mm). For both tested samples with Dyy,=25 mm and 37.5 mm, it ean be seen that the E, highly controlled the particle breakage mode at each w condition, Small % increment/cecrement can be observed for tested samples at E,=580 ki/m’ in accord- ance with the lowest B,) as shown in Fig. Te and d. Noted that the breakage of coarse fractions larger than > 19 mm. became more significant (ie., higher % decrement) among, other fractions in coarse aggregates. This breakage of coarse fractions resulted in the % increment of fractions in other fractions of coarse aggregates (4.75-19 mm) and fine agsre- sates (<4,75 mm). Having a close look at the % decrement in the coarse fractions of > 19 mm, a lower % decrement (ie., weakened breakage) can be observed at F,=20% at each w condition compared to other tested samples. Again, this is attributed to the cushioning effect of fines (<0.075 mm), Moreover, the particle breakage mode corresponding, to w at “bulking” (mDD in Figs. 4 and 5) did not show 4 clear difference compared to the breakage modes of air-dry and w,,, (corresponding to MDD), even thoughJounal of Mater Cycles and Waste Managemen (2072) 2634-48 # Fig.6 Relationship between : tfectve stration ) and Gravitational | Capillary region | Hygroscopie ater pte energy Gp for region | region teased a om compaction ' {esH6: & Dygg=25 ab a | CF ' Q ‘elponing MDD and mDD ' ' trementloped wih brotoe 0.23 kPa ' circles. The eaeulated range 1.00 slvel | Of Say tnd Seg mee gen ' wi Shaded bare Water etn 0.90 curve (WRC) measred Pande ocsesnd eure of Bows Corey 4 = cere ee Ss Eoso 20.40 5 0.30 S020 0.10 0.00 OO 01 10 1001000 10000100000 tly) = 0.23 kPa 1.00 0.90 0.80 e070 (indie proces = 0.60 1 £050 1 2030 : | & : ' ' 0.20 | Sys = 0.16- 0.24 t 1 0.10 t ' 0.00 - - oor on 10 100100010000 ee Water potential, |y/ (kPa) AF =0% ar = oF = 10% oF there was a distinet difference between mDD and MDD for both tested samples with Dx =25 mm and 37.5 mm, This suggests that water states in the tested RCA had a key role in explaining the difference in dry densities; that is, particle breakage was induced to the same degree under the compaction process at both moisture conditions cor- responding to mDD and MDD, but the high capillary force induced by a thin water film surrounding the particles impeded the rearrangement of particles at the moisture condition corresponding to mDD, as discussed in Fig. 6. springera Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2434-48. Dg 375 | escent F.00) z tg) vt 2000) Dnata 306089) AO, 26 9 eae Fig.7_a, b Maximum dry density (MDD), ed breakage index (8, ‘amples were compacted atthe optimum water content ( and ¢, CBR of RCA samples 388 Function of fines content (F,). The tested 5*105%) Mite setion (n= S010 (52010 (oe-20 00 Pe oo ae we wane E a i, 3 loin fi i" 5 ws J s RG op =: - & 7 : vo ° amore | : omy ES : - jocuri, I 3 reli of a} ‘Partick fraction (ei) . ‘Particle faction (mn) Partick fraction (cam) Fig.6 Particle breakage mode of RCA saps with Dy =25 mm under diferent compaction energies (E) © springerJournal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2834-48 8 Moe nin (0) S04 (5-201 (k= s0M0 witidey ° coo ae 3 o fe ; oreny ES : Supr ° FO be : 0 weit) ES — 3 a =r WONG : 3 | inne te wites of : rE Poo SF 8 ee err. Be ee aoe s ad Pari aton (om) rile tion) Fig.9 Particle breakage mode of RCA samples With Dy CBR of tested samples Measured CBR of tested RCA samples with Dyag=25 mm. and 37.5 mm as a function of fines content (F,) are shown in Fig. Te and f. The measured CBR values are summarized with measured DD and B, values in Table A3. Inthe table, technical standards of CBR for oad base and subbase mate- rials in TCVN 8859:201 1 [25] of Vietnam (Dyay=25 mm) and Japan Road Association [26] (Dy, =25 mm and 37.5 mm), and water permeability of tested samples ae also given. Compared to the technical standards in Vietnam and. Japan, it can be seen thatthe soaked CBR values of all tested samples inthis study satisfy the standards regardless of Dax and F,. As shown in Fig, Te and f, the CBR values at degrees of compaction (K)=95% and 98% were highly dependent on F,, and the peak CBR can be found at F,=5% for both tested samples with Dx =25 mm and 37.5 mm, suggesting that control of F, isan important point to ensure a sutficient bearing capacity as well as the control of K (in other words, compacted dry density) under the compaction provess. The CBR valves from previous studies{7, 37-43] using NA are 75 mm under ferent compaction energies (E2) also plotted in Fig. 7e and f. The CBR values of RCA are significantly higher than those of NA regardless of Dy, and F.. This can be explained due tothe existing of cementitious particles in RCA, they would be hydrated and contributed to the increase in the aggregate bonding of samples [| 1, 4]. In addition, to examine the correlations among CBR, dry density (DD), and F,, a multiple linear regression analysis ‘was carried out. The best-fit regressions for tested RCA sam- ples became as follows: Days =25mm | CBR = 58% 10DD-4.6F, 9.1 x 10(R? = 057) @ Dayay =37.5mm : CBR = 8.5 x 10° DD-6.2F, 1.4% 10°( = 0.92) ® As shown in Eqs. (3) and (4), the coefficient of DD is larger by two orders of magnitude compared to that of F.. indicating that the CBR can be correlated solely with DD for tested RCA samples in this study, Springer4 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2434-48. Conclusions A series of compaction and CBR tests of graded RCA with, Dax =25 mim and 37.5 mm and four different F, ranging from 0 10 20% were carried out inthe laboratory. The water states of tested compacted samples were examined using the data on water retention curve and measurements of water potential energy, and the particle breakage mode was ana- lysed based on the % increment and/or decrement before and after the compaction in this study. In the compaction curves, both the maximum and mini mum dry densities (MDD and mDD) were observed and those values varied depending on the compaction energy and F of tested samples. The water retained at MDD existed in the capillary region, and the water retained at mDD (“bulk- ing”) existed at the boundary between the capillary and hygroscopic regions based on the measured relationship between effective saturation and water potential energy. It ‘was understood that the high capillary force induced by a thin water film surrounding the particles impeded the rear- rangement of particles at mDD, resulting in low dry density. The characteristics of particle breakage were carefully exam- ined by measuring % increment and/or decrement before and after the compaction. It was found thatthe particle breakage ‘mode was highly dependent on the compaction energy and. tly dependent on the moisture condition of tested sam- ples. Especially, the coarse fractions with> 19 mm showed a significant breakage (higher % decrement) among other frac- tions in coarse aggregates, causing the % increment of frac~ tions in other fractions of coarse aggregates (4.75-19 mm) and fine aggregates. The CBR of tested samples gave the maximum values at F, =5%; however, the CBR can be cor- related solely with dry density based on a multiple regres- sion analysis. This study, overall, indicated that the water content of graded RCA plays an important role, as does compaction energy and fines content, In a certain range of water con- tent, it may drive “bulking” of grains and causes lower dry © springer density compared to a desired density under the compaction process in road construction. Thus, a combinational control of graded RCA and compaction conditions is essential to maintain the performance and longevity ofa road pavement structure. Finally, this study targets only graded RCA made from conerete waste in Vietnam, Because materials used {or road construction vary depending on local conditions, therefore, further studies are needed for other road base and subbase aggregates made from waste clay brieks and their mixtures with RCA, recycled asphalt, and steel slag aggregates, Appendix Chemical components of tested RCA were determined using energy-dispersive X-ray fhuorescence spectrometer based on fundamental parameter method (FP-EDX) are given in Table AI. Water and acid extractable heavy metals are ztiven in Table A2. A summary of measured compaction parameters and CBR is given in Table A3 with the techni- cal requirements of recycled aggregates for road base and subbase materials in Vietnam and Japan. Components (@) Coarse agere- Fine agaregate Fines ate (475mm) («0.075 mm) (2475 mm) Mgo 109 39 73 ALO, 44 nM 59) Sio, 267 384 sis C0 333 2.1 sis Fe.0, 12 Ls 17 Others as 17 21sJournal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2834-48 45 Table AZ Water and acid extractable heavy metals of tested RCA samples Heavy met Coarse aparegate Fine agarezate Fines Detection limit Standand value (MOE (2475 mm) (475mm) (0.075 mm) notification No-46: 1991 Pep Water extractable tons (ait mg/L) cd ND ND ND oot oot Ph ND ND ND 001 oot cr 0.04.36) 004.45) 0.020 = = crv, 2048) 04.05) 0.02 0) ‘005 05 cu 1.002) v9) 1.0019) - - As ND ND ND 001 oor He ND ND ND 0.0005 0.0005 cw ND ND ND ou . se ND ND ND 001 oor F 1a) 21 ND ou os B osc) 050) osc) on 1 Acid extractable ions (unit: mg) ca ND ND ND 1 150 Po 2309) 147) Re s 150 cr 381) 3931) we - 2 cen, 10) ND ND 1 250 cu ND ND ND e - As 20) 30) 10) 1 150 He ND ND ND 1 1s cw ND ND ND IL 50 Se ND ND ND 1 150 F uO 6602) 1100) 40 4000 B ND ND ND 40 4000 [ND Now detectable Water extractable ions were measured by MOE notification No.18 (2008) [27] and acid extractable ions were measured by MOE notification No.19 (2003) [28], Average values of triplicate measurements ae given, Vales i the parenthesis are coatficint of variation (CV in) springerJournal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2434-48. 46 |A3) uous jo a> yo am stsouwuaed a yo son Gout aterayy “Ce 01-s'6="*) sto seem undo xp persed aia sayduns parse, pqpoat iy Sefau88e pojoa jo suowunbat eruy>9y. [92] (LOZ) (WN) oHEROSSY PEO UedET sng pur sasoq anefaufty sz] (1102) OSH NADL wap Aap aa p90 NLT aDTe 1169 v 1692 Gop ry (s6=¥ 8 UD) oz ov - Lor ve sae wD) - iz - i 6888 NADL L (oe DIL = UDOU-—DRE - SS6=¥ (ssi (se Gost =u SLL (662 - 286-0 (eu West wae soe wr (ore (epesz ort weet (oes (sh) 961 ur (0) 107 M96 soz wo00z — osoT ose 07 ove Dre eo oes our uy) aa ——_Atondes Suswag 19 96 @sst des wos oses ones we on69 lesz @z1 Get noe oss woe o wore oerz ose. 6 oom wow le9z COW Cer weet oss 78) wonseduo9 s « 0 5 0 ona Gt a = wuse= a (ue) "a sonedoud wa, yeautod souen pa 499 ‘uouDEN09 tu ‘soiouied pus somes pamstoujo Aung gy ageL © springerJournal of Material Cycles and Waste Management (2022) 2834-48 4 ‘Acknowledgements This research was supported by the projet of Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)—Japan International Cooperation Agency (ICA) on Science and Technology Reseach Pat nership fr Sustainable Development (SATREPS) (No. JPMISA1701). References 1. 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Waste Manag 49:131-145, Ipsffdt.ore/10.1016), wasman.2015.12.021 Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to {jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional afilitions.