NSC 1110 – BIOLOGY

LABORATORY HANDOUT- 01
**2021**

Introduction

The laboratory practicals in this handout are designed to reinforce concepts that have been covered in
the foregoing lectures. However, not all the concepts covered in the lectures can be considered in the
laboratory practicals. As such, only a few concepts have been selected in order to introduce you the
student to scientific investigation. You are advised to prepare adequately before attending the
laboratory session.

There are a number of general lab rules and conduct which you are expected to adhere to in the
laboratory, a few of which are highlighted below:

 Always wear a laboratory coat.

 Long hair should be tied back while in the lab.
 Wash your hands thoroughly at the end of each laboratory session.
 Report all spillages, breakages and accidents to you laboratory demonstrator
immediately.
 Clean your apparatus after use.
 Do not enter the lab until your instructor tells you to.
 Follow all procedures in manuals and as given by the instructor.
 Do NOT come to the lab intoxicated or under influence of drugs.
 Do NOT eat or drink in the laboratory.

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How to write Laboratory Report

The laboratory report follows a logical order based on the principles of the scientific method. In order
to help you on how you should present such a report, a format is suggested below:

1. COVER PAGE
You need to give your full names, computer number, title of the report, date and day of your
laboratory practical and your laboratory demonstrator’s name.

2. TITLE
The purpose of the activity should be stated clearly, e.g. ‘Experiment to investigate the effect of pH
on enzyme activity’. It should capture the main point of the Lab.

3. INTRODUCTION
This is a short description of the theory behind the experiment to be investigated thereby setting a
context for the experiment. It highlights the important aspects of the experiment and not the method.
It should also tell why the study was undertaken.

Proper citations should be given, for instance: The cells in epithelial tissue can be squamous or
cuboidal (Tembo, 2019).

4. AIM
This is a statement of the problem or the posing of a question e.g. ‘To investigate the effect of
solutions of pH 2-10 on the rate of digestion of the protein albumin by the enzyme pepsin and to
determine the optimum pH of the reaction’.

Note that the aim is more specific in pointing out the problem to be investigated.

5. MATERIALS AND METHODS (OR PROCEDURE)

Check your lab handout for a guide on the procedure.

This is an account of the activities carried out during the performance of the experiment. It should be
concise, precise and with a step-by-step description of how the apparatus was set up and the activities
performed during the experiment. Using the information given, another Scientist should be able to
repeat the same experiment.

Do not list the materials separately rather incorporate them into your procedure.

It should be written in the past tense.

Do not write in point form and avoid using I, we, she, he……simply state what was done
without details of who did what!

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6. RESULTS / OBSERVATIONS
These may be qualitative or quantitative and should be presented in a clear methodical way and in
some appropriate form or forms e.g. description, tables of data, graphs, histograms, bar charts etc.

If a diagram is to be made, the drawing must be large, well-drawn, accurately and clearly labelled,
without any shading. There should be a title to each drawing (or table).

7. DISCUSSION
This is your interpretation of the results. This is the most important part of your report. The discussion
should not be a verbal repetition of the results, but an attempt to relate theoretical knowledge of the
experimental variables to the results obtained.
 What did you expect to find and why?
 How do your results compare to what you expected?
 How might you explain any unexpected results?
 How could you improve the experiment if you were to repeat it?
 What sources of error could there have been in the experiment?

8. CONCLUSION
This is a verification of the aim. Has it been achieved? For example, for the aim given in (4) above, a
conclusion could state that ‘there is a relationship between pH and enzyme activity and for this
reaction the optimum pH is … …’
Note that the conclusion is strongly tied to the aim of the experiment.

9. REFERENCES
This is a list of the sources of information i.e. texts from which you obtained the theoretical part of the
experiment. Give credit where it is due. Do NOT overuse the web, the web is not the best resource!!
Do NOT number the references. DO put them in alphabetical order.
For example:
Darnell, J.H. and Baltimore, D. (1986), Molecular Cell Biology, 1st Ed, American Books Inc.,
Carlifornia, USA.

Kent, M. (2000), Advanced Biology, 2nd Ed, Oxford University Press, New York, USA.

EXTRA TIPS
 Check your spellings and grammar before you submit your work.
 All your lab reports MUST be handwritten.
 Be sure each sentence actually says something relevant, otherwise, get rid of it!
 Hand in all your lab reports in time.
 Ask for help well before the due date.
 DO NOT copy your friend’s work. You will be penalized.

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LABORATORY PRACTICAL ONE

Properties of Water

Water is everywhere. It makes up about 3/4ths of the surface of the earth. It makes up 50-95% of the
weight of living organisms. It is in the air we breathe, the sinks we use and in every cell of the body.
Water has special properties that make it unusual and complex.

Water has the ability to exist in all three states of matter: a liquid, solid or gas depending on the
temperature at which it is found. Each molecule of water is made up of 2 hydrogen molecules and 1
oxygen molecule bonded together. Water is a polar molecule because the oxygen molecule has a
slightly negative charge and the hydrogen molecules have a slightly negative charge. This polarity
results in hydrogen bonds forming between water molecules.

Properties of water include it being a universal solvent, cohesion, adhesion, capillary movement,
surface tension, high heat of vaporization, high specific heat, et cetera. The properties of water are of
significance to all living organisms.
In this laboratory practical, you will carry out experiment to demonstrate some of the properties of
water.

COHESION

Materials: a coin, water, Medicine dropper

Procedure:
(a) Pipette some water using the medicine dropper and place a drop of water onto the coin.
(b) Add more drops onto the coin until it is full, keeping a careful count of the number of drops.
Observations:
(a) How many drops did you place on the coin?
(b) How many drops appeared to be on the coin?

SURFACE TENSION

Materials: a Paper Clip, water, a piece of wax paper (or plain paper), a beaker, Medicine dropper
Procedure:
(a) Fill the beaker with water. Place the paper clip on a piece of wax paper and float the paper on
the water.
(b) Observe what happens.
Observations:
(a) What happened when you floated the wax paper supporting the paper clip?
(b) What would happen if liquid detergent were added to the water?

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As part of your discussion, answer the following question:
1. What is your explanation for the number of drops of water that appeared to be on the
coin?
2. How does detergent affect the water property of surface tension?
3. What would you possibly observe if an ice cube were placed in a beaker of water?
4. How does the water property of ‘density’ benefit aquatic animals?

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LABORATORY PRACTICAL TWO

Qualitative Tests for Biomolecules

In this laboratory practical, food samples will be tested for biological molecules present. The tests to
be done will be Iodine test for Starch and Biuret Test for proteins.

Starch is a complex polysaccharide that consists of glucose molecules joined together by glycosidic
bonds. Linear molecules of starch are called amylose and the branches molecules are called
amylopectin.

The iodine test for starch is used to determine the presence of starch in biological materials. Iodine on
its own is insoluble in water. Therefore, Potassium tri-iodide solution, Iodine dissolved in potassium
iodide solution, is used as a reagent in the test. The potassium iodide dissociates and the iodide ion
reacts reversibly with the iodine to yield the tri-iodide ion. A further reaction between a tri-iodide ion
and an iodine molecule yields the penta-iodide ion. The tri-iodide and penta-iodide ions slip inside the
amylose (a form of starch) forming a starch-iodide complex which appears as an intense purple or
blue-black colour.

Proteins are long chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Biuret test is a general test for
compounds (proteins and peptides) having two or more peptide (CO-NH) bonds. When biuret is
treated with dilute copper sulfate in alkaline medium, a purple colored compound is formed. It is
believed that the color is due to the formation of a copper co-ordinated complex or chelate complex.
Cupric ions or Cu (II) ions form a violet-colored chelate complex with unshared electron pairs of
peptide nitrogen and oxygen of water. The chelate complex absorbs light at 540 nm and hence appears
violet. The color change from blue to violet indicates the presence of proteins.

The greater the number of peptide bonds in a protein, the greater the color intensity. Hence, the color
change is from blue to pink if the concentration of peptide bonds is low like in short-chain peptides.
The principle of biuret test is conveniently used to detect the presence of proteins in biological fluids.

Materials:
Samples A and C, Droppers, Iodine, Biuret, Beakers, Test tubes and a White tile

Procedure:
Iodine Test for Starch
- Put 2cm3 of sample solution into a test tube and add 2 to 3 drops of iodine
- Observe colour changes

Biuret Test for Proteins

- Put 2cm3 of sample solution in a test tube and add 2cm3 of Biuret reagent.
- Shake well and leave to stand for about a minute.

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 - Observe any colour changes
Results
Copy and Fill in the tables below:

Iodine Test for Starch

Sample A Sample B
Observation

Conclusion

Biuret test for Proteins

Sample A Sample B
Observation

Conclusion