Reservoir Engineering and Petrophysics

Module 2: Oil and Gas Recovery Mechanisms and the Generalized

Material Balance Equation
Lesson 2.1: Oil and Gas Recovery Mechanisms
Lesson 2.1: Learning objectives:

Upon completion of this lesson, students should be able

to:
Identify and describe the main drive mechanisms for oil and
gas reservoirs
Describe typical production features for the drive
mechanisms
Describe typical recovery factor ranges for the different drive
mechanisms
Build the basic principles for the derivation of the material
balance equation (MBE) and other governing relationships
that can be used to predict the volumetric performance of oil
reservoirs.

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Hydrocarbons Recovery Process

Recovery of hydrocarbons (HC) can be classified into three

stages:
Primary recovery (natural depletion)
Secondary recovery (pressure maintenance by water injection
or immiscible gas injection)
Tertiary recovery (steam injection, polymer flooding, etc.)
 Also known as enhanced oil recovery (EOR)

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Primary Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

Is the “utilization” of natural energy of the reservoir to cause the

HCs to flow to the production wells;
For Oil Reservoirs – six sources can provide natural energy:
i. Depletion Drive (Solution Gas Drive, Dissolved gas drive or
Internal gas drive)
ii. Gas-Cap Drive
iii. Water Drive
iv. Compaction/Expansion Drive
v. Gravity Drainage Drive
vi. Combination Drive

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Oil Reservoirs

Depending on initial reservoir pressure 𝒑𝒊 , oil reservoirs can be:

Undersaturated oil reservoir
 If the initial reservoir pressure 𝒑𝒊 is greater than the bubble-
point pressure 𝒑𝒃
Saturated oil reservoir:
 If the initial reservoir pressure is equal to the bubble-point
pressure of the reservoir fluid
Gas – cap reservoir
 If the initial reservoir pressure is below the bubble point
pressure of the reservoir fluid. The appropriate quality line
gives the ratio of the gas-cap volume to reservoir oil volume.

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Oil Reservoirs

Phase envelop illustration

𝐓𝐫 ; 𝐏𝐫 𝐔𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝
𝐓𝐰𝐟 ; 𝐏𝐰𝐟 𝐰𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐛𝐨𝐫𝐞
Cricondenbar

𝐓𝐛 ; 𝐏𝐛
𝐒𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝
Cricondentherm

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Production performance

Each drive mechanism has certain typical performance

characteristics in terms:
Ultimate recovery factor
Pressure decline rate
Gas-oil ratio
Water production

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Expansion/Compaction Drive Mechanism

When an oil reservoir initially exists at a pressure above its

bubble-point pressure, it is called an undersaturated oil
reservoir;
At this pressure crude oil, connate water, and rock are the only
materials present;
When reservoir pressure drops, the pore spaces are compacted
while the rock matrix and liquids expand, causing the
production of fluids;
This (compaction) drive mechanism is common in highly
compressible, unconsolidated reservoirs.

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Expansion/Compaction Drive Mechanism

Because liquids and rocks are only slightly compressible, the

reservoir experiences a rapid pressure decline
Production under expansion/compaction drive is characterized
by a constant gas-oil ratio that is equal to the gas solubility at
the bubble point pressure (GOR = Rs)
Least efficient driving force and usually results in the recovery
of only a small percentage of the total oil-in-place (3-5%)

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Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs (Dissolved gas drive)

This mechanism results from liberation of gas from crude oil and
successive expansion of the solution gas as the reservoir
pressure drops;
Expansion of the gas forces the oil out of the pore spaces and
causes production
Above bubble point (undersaturated res.): only oil expansion
Below bubble point (saturated res. ): both oil and liberated gas
expansion contribute to volume change

OIL PRODUCING LIBERATED

PRODUCING WELLS SOLUTION
WELLS
GAS

A. PARTIALLY DEPLETED
A. ORIGINAL CONDITIONS

𝒑 ≥ 𝒑𝒃 𝒑 ≤ 𝒑𝒃

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Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs (Dissolved gas drive)

Diagnostic Features:
The reservoir pressure declines rapidly and continuously
 Due to the absence of extra fluids or gas caps to provide a
replacement for gas and oil withdrawals
𝑹𝒔𝒊 (solution gas oil ratio) is constant until 𝒑𝒃 , then increases
to maximum and declines
Well production declines rapidly and early pumping is required
to support production

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Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs (Dissolved gas drive)

Diagnostic Features:
There is no free gas (original gas cap) present above the
bubble point pressure
Liberated dissolved gas may segregate from oil phase under
gravity forces and form a secondary gas cap

Formation of a Secondary Gas Cap

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Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs (Dissolved gas drive)

Typical Oil Production Performance

Absent or minimal water influx (water-cut)
Recovery factor range 5 to 30% (least efficient method)

Time, years
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Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs (Dissolved gas drive)

Production Performance:
Solution-gas (depletion) drive is one of the least efficient oil
recovery methods
The low recovery efficiency occurs because of the increasing
gas saturation in the reservoir as the pressure falls below Pb
Ultimate oil recovery range 5 to 30% (huge quantities of oil
remain in the reservoir)
Solution-gas (depletion) drive reservoirs are typically good
candidates for secondary recovery applications

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Gas-cap Drive Mechanism

The principle of gas cap drive is the expansion of both free gas
cap and the solution gas in the oil zone in response to a pressure
drop
The change in fluid volume causes the oil production
Typical recover 20 to 40% OIIP (oil initially in place) (also known
as OOIP – original oil in place), sometimes as high as 60%

Oil
Producing wells
Oil Oil
zone zone

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Gas-cap Drive Mechanism

Diagnostic Features:
The reservoir pressure falls slowly and continuously
The gas-oil ratio rises continuously in up-structure wells to
high values
Preferential flow of gas due to its lower viscosity
Gas-cap-drive reservoirs tend to flow longer than depletion-
drive reservoirs

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Gas-cap Drive Mechanism

Diagnostic Features:
Absent or negligible water production

Time, years
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Gas-cap Drive Mechanism

The ultimate oil recovery from a gas-cap drive reservoir depends

on:
Size of the original gas cap
Vertical permeability
Degree of conservation of the gas
Oil viscosity
Oil production rate
Dip angle

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Gas-cap Drive Mechanism

Size of the Original Gas Cap (m):

Provides a measure of reservoir energy available to produce
the oil
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒑
𝒎=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒆

Reservoir pressure

Abandonment pressure

Time, years
https://www.slb.com/-/media/files/oilfield-review/defining-
reservoir-drive-mechanisms.ashx

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Gas-cap Drive Mechanism

Vertical Permeability
Good vertical permeability permits the oil to move down with
less bypassing of gas
The RF is impacted by degree of conservation of the gas, oil
viscosity, production rate and dip angle (a)

Original conditions Gas-cap expansion and encroachment

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Gas-cap Drive Mechanism

Oil Viscosity
As the oil viscosity increases, the amount of gas bypassing
will also increase, which leads to a lower oil recover
Oil production rate
With pressure decline, gas evolves and begins to flow in the
oil zone
The effective permeability to oil decreases because of the
increased gas saturation
The effective permeability to gas increases, increasing the flow
of gas
Degree of Conservation of the Gas
To conserve gas, the wells producing excessive gas must be
shut in
Dip angle

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Water-Drive Mechanism

The drive energy is provided by an influx of aquifer that interfaces with

oil, at the OWC, or with gas, at the gas – water contact (GWC), in the
reservoir
Additionally, expansion of both the oil and water liquid phases, as the
pressure drops, contributes for HC production

review/defining-reservoir-drive-mechanisms.ashx
hydrocarbon

https://www.slb.com/-/media/files/oilfield-
zone

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Water-Drive Mechanism

As the HCs are produced, the aquifer expands, and water inflow
can vertically and radially displace oil or gas
Bottom – water drive: Water leg underlies the entire reservoir
Edge – water drive: Water only contacts part of the areal
extent

Oil Producing well Oil producing well

Bottom – water drive Edge – water drive

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Water-Drive Mechanism

If the aquifer volume is large compared with the produced

volumes of HCs (or if the aquifer replenishes by surface waters),
the recovery is usually better

Natural water drive is associated

with high recovery rates (35-75%
OIIP for oil and 60-80% GIIP for gas)

The Upper Devonian Leduc pools are driven by

inflow from the Cooking Lake Aquifer

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Water-Drive Mechanism

How efficiently the produced HCs can be replaced by water to

maintain the reservoir energy is dependent on
The size of the aquifer
The permeability of the aquifer
The reservoir production rate
Common characteristics of water drive include:
No appreciable pressure reduction with production
Producing gas-oil ratio (GOR) remains const. as 𝒑 ≥ 𝒑𝒃
Some oil may be trapped behind because of advancing water
Wells flow freely until water cut increases significantly

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Water-Drive Mechanism

Typical performance of water drive

Water influx starts, resulting in increase and excessive water
production

Recovery 35-75% OIIP

for oil and 60-80% GIIP
for gas

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Gravity Drainage Reservoirs

Gravity drainage mechanism occurs because of differences in

densities of the reservoir fluids
The gravity forces causes oil, gas, and water to segregate due
to their density differences (gas at the top, oil in the middle, and
water at the bottom) under stabilized conditions.

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Cole, 1969
Gravity Drainage Reservoirs

Gravity drainage is particularly important in solution-gas and

gas-cap drive oil reservoirs
During production from thick and high-dip formations, free gas
tends to migrate up dip and oil tends to move downdip
This causes production from wells located low on structure

Free gas

28 Cole, 1969
Gravity Drainage Reservoirs

This mechanism provides high long-term recovery efficiency

like water drive (50-70% OOIP)
However, gravity drainage is a slow process; production is at a
much lower rate than that from the other drive mechanisms
Therefore, gravity drainage is seldom the sole provider of the
reservoir energy; it usually contributes to production in
combination with other drive mechanisms.
The best conditions for gravity drainage are:
High dip
Thick oil zone
High vertical (or up-dip) permeability

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Gravity Drainage Reservoirs

Two common combinations of driving forces result from the presence of

a gas-cap and an aquifer. The recovery factor is a function of:
Size of the gas-cap
Strength of the aquifer
Wells’ locations in reference
to GOC and WOC
Managing/controlling
production rate to avoid or
delay gas & water coning

For tilted reservoirs, gravity segregation can play a key role in

providing additional recovery by allowing liberated gas to migrate to
the gas-cap
Primary Drive Mechanisms – Summary
Primary Reservoir GOR Water Comments
Drive pressure Production
Liquid
Remains low and const. None, except where Reservoir pressure
expansion and
Declines rapidly and with no gas liberated in part of the formation is above the bubble
pore volume
continuously the reservoir water is mobile point
reduction
Solution gas None, except where Reservoir pressure
Declines rapidly and At first low, then rises to
part of the formation is below the bubble
continuously a peak, and then drops
water is mobile point
Gas cap
Falls slowly and Rises continuously in
(underlain by Negligible
continuously crestal or updip wells
oil)
Apparently high
Early water
OHCIP calculated
Remains high and is production in downdip
Remains low if reservoir by material balance
Water influx sensitive to oil, gas, and wells. Water
pressure remains high method when
water production production rises
aquifer influx is
rapidly
ignored
Favorable recovery
where permeability
Remains low in updip
Gravity Declines rapidly and > 200 md,
wells and high in Negligible
drainage continuously formation dip >
downdip wells
10o, and oil
viscosity < 5 cp

*Recovery is strongly influenced by reservoir heterogeneities, in addition to

drive mechanism(s)
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Primary Drive Mechanisms Recovery Factor

For Oil Reservoirs

Recover Factor, %OOIP

Drive Mechanism
Range Average
Expansion/Compaction Drive 3–5 3
Solution Gas Drive 20 – 35 25
Gas-cap Drive 20 – 40 30
Water Drive 35 – 75 50
Gravity Drainage

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Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

For gas reservoirs, typically two sources provide

natural/primary energy:
Volumetric reservoir (gas expansion drive)
Water Drive

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Volumetric Gas Reservoirs

Reservoir type
Gas reservoir with no aquifer
Main source(s) of reservoir natural energy
Expansion of original reservoir gas
Reservoir rock and fluids expansion important sources of
energy for abnormally high-pressured gas reservoirs
Typical production characteristics
Long flowing life
Slow decline in pressure
Recovery range from 70 to 90% of OGIP (original gas in place)

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Water Drive Gas Reservoirs

Reservoir type
Gas reservoir with communication with an aquifer
Main source(s) of reservoir natural energy
Influx of aquifer water
Expansion of original reservoir gas
Typical production characteristics
Pressure declines more slowly than gas drive
Can flow for an extended period until water production
However, water production may cause the well to die
Recovery range from 35 to 65% of OGIP (original gas in place)

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Primary Drive Mechanisms Recovery Factor

Gas Reservoirs

Recover Factor, %GIIP

Drive Mechanism
Range Average
Volumetric reservoir (Gas
Expansion Drive) 70 – 90 80

Water Drive 35 – 65 50

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Quiz

1. Which of the following provides energy for the compaction

drive reservoir?
b) Expansion of oil
c) Expansion of gas
d) Reduction of pore volume and expansion of connate water

2. The reservoir drive mechanism is called a Solution gas

drive reservoir when the:
a) Reservoir pressure < Bubble point reservoir
b) Reservoir pressure > Bubble point reservoir
c) Reservoir pressure > Dew point reservoir
d) Reservoir pressure = Dew point reservoir

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Quiz

3. The gravity drainage mechanism occurs because of differences

in densities of reservoir fluids
False True

4. The Gas-cap-drive reservoirs can be identified by the presence

of a gas cap with little or no water drive. As the Pressure drops oil
is driven by
a) Expansion of both free gas cap and solution gas in the oil
zone
b) Expansion of water, free gas cap and solution gas in the oil
zone
c) Expansion of both free gas cap and rock matrix

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Quiz

5. Which of the following provides energy for the water drive

reservoir?

a) Expansion of both free gas cap and solution gas

b) water influx and expansion of both oil and water as the
pressure drops
c) Expansion of both free gas cap, rock matrix and oil

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Quiz

6. The source(s) of energy for volumetric gas reservoirs are:

a) Influx of aquifer water

b) Expansion of original reservoir gas
c) Expansion of both original reservoir gas and water

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Credits

Modifications:
Alberto Bila, Ph.D., Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Chemical Engineering
and Petroleum Engineering
Developer:
Dr. Maria Barrufet, Texas A&M Petroleum Engineering
Contributors
Luis H M Lucas, Ph.D., Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Professor of
Chemical Engineering
Susanne Rothschild, Instructional Designer Sponsor

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