Geoscience for Petroleum Engineers: Hydrocarbon Origins, Migration, and Entrapment

Geoscience for Petroleum Engineers
Module 10: Hydrocarbon Origins, Migration, and Entrapment
1
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, students will be able to:

Relate the origins, migration, and trapping of
hydrocarbons.
Define bitumen, kerogen, self-sourcing reservoirs, thermal
maturity, primary and secondary migration, and TOC.
Determine its stage of thermal maturity, when given the
thermal maturity of a source rock.
Predict whether a source rock has produced oil, gas, or
both when given the type(s) if kerogen in a source rock.
List at least 3 methods for determining source rock
thermal maturity.
Summarize the effects of pores throat diameter on
capillary pressure.
2
Hydrocarbon Origins, Migration, and Entrapment—Outline
Introduction
Origins of Hydrocarbons
Kerogen Types and Relations to Hydrocarbon Types
Thermal Maturation and Hydrocarbon Generation
Shale Source Rock Properties
Primary Migration of Hydrocarbons
Secondary Migration and Trapping of Hydrocarbons
Examples of Conventional Petroleum Systems
3
Conventional Petroleum Systems
Definition
A petroleum system is a dynamic hydrocarbon generating system,
functioning in a geologic space and time scale.
Requirements
A conventional petroleum system requires the timely convergence of
geologic elements and events essential to the formation of petroleum
deposits.
 These include
 Mature source rock
 Expulsion
 Secondary migration of reservoir rock
 Accumulation in a trap
 Retention
Modified from Demaison and Huizinga, 1994

4
Four Scales or Levels of Petroleum Investigation
Modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994

5
Migration and Entrapment of Hydrocarbons
Source rocks and thermal maturation
Primary migration—Movement of hydrocarbons through a

fine-grained source rock (expulsion)
Secondary migration—Movement of hydrocarbons

through permeable formations and fractures owing to
buoyancy, pressure differences or diffusion
Entrapment—Confinement of hydrocarbons at faults,

formation boundaries or pinch-outs owing to capillary
pressure greater than buoyant force
6
Cross Section of Deer-Boar Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
A Geographic Extent of Petroleum System A'
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
System (Lateral Stress)
Overburden Rock
Sedimentary
Essential Seal Rock
Basin Fill
Elements
Reservoir Rock
of
Pod of Active Petroleum Source Rock
Source Rock System
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window
Modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994; after Peters and Cassa, 1994
7
Biotic or Abiotic Origin of Hydrocarbons?
New Study Says Oil Came From Minerals Not Plants
Modified from: Neil Chatterjee
LONDON, 8/16/02 (Reuters) - Fossil fuels could have formed from minerals instead of
plant and animal remains as generally believed, say U.S. and Russian scientists.
The team of geologists argues that petroleum originated from minerals at extreme temperatures
and pressures - more than 100 kilometres (62 miles) below the surface from minerals containing
carbon at around 1,500 degrees celsius and 50,000 times atmospheric pressure.
This produced various hydrocarbons including methane, the main constituent of

natural gas, and octane, the hydrocarbon molecule that is the basis for gasoline.
The research, reported in the journal Nature this week, reignites a debate that is almost
fossilised itself.
There is overwhelming chemical and biological evidence that fossil fuels are
composed of animal and plants, or organic matter. These chemical signs are also used
to find oil.
A mathematical model of the researchers' process suggests that none of the ingredients of a
mineral-based fossil fuel other than methane could form at depths of less than 100 kilometres,
whereas petroleum is found at much shallower levels.
The conventional view is that oil forms just a few kilometres below the surface at temperatures of
50-150 degrees celsius, a process that can be recreated in the laboratory.
Petroleum that forms inorganically at high temperatures close to the Earth's mantle layer could not
create the huge volume of proven world oil reserves - 143 billion tonnes according to energy major
BP - that are expected to last around 40 years at current rates of use.
(C) Reuters Limited 2002
8
What is Petroleum?
Petroleum or hydrocarbons are primarily made up of Hydrogen (H) and

Carbon (C)
Hydrocarbons (HC) can be: gasses (natural gas), liquids (oil), plastic
substances (asphalt), or solids (coal and kerogen)
Condensate = gaseous hydrocarbons in subsurface that condense to
liquid at surface P and T
Liquid hydrocarbons = oil, crude oil, or just crude
Gas may be dry (<0.1 gal condensate per 1000 ft3 gas) or wet (>0.3 gal
condensate per 1000 ft3 gas)
Gas is sweet (H2S absent) or sour (H2S present)
Oil may contain abundant Sulfur (S), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), trace
metals, and other elements
Most oil and natural gas result from break-down of organic matter (OM)
in the subsurface; OM is rarely of inorganic origin (mantle-derived)
Break-down of OM is either (1) biogenic (bacterial degradation of OM at
shallow depths) or (2) thermogenic (burial and subsequent heating =
thermal maturation)
9
The Carbon Cycle
Begins with photosynthesis, where atmospheric CO2 + water
are converted to glucose, water, & oxygen.
Glucose is starting material for complex polysaccharides &
other organic compounds.
Most OM is recycled back
to atmosphere as CO2
plant and animal respiration
oxidation of OM
bacterial decay
Carbon cycle is not
completely efficient; ~1%
of OM is buried & escapes
Recycling.
Most OM in sediments is
widely dispersed; must concentrate
it to form good source rocks.
10
Source Rock Types and Characteristics
Fine-grained clastics (clay and silt) and/or carbonates

Most organics deposited on ocean or lake bottoms
Source rock commonly is 0.5 - 10% organic material
Coal is more than 50% (commonly +85%) organic
Low matrix porosity and permeability
Brittle—may be naturally fractured
Usual Conditions Favoring Source Rock Origins

Sources or organics
Low-energy setting—hence, fine-grained sediments
Reducing conditions—to preserve organic materials
Rapid burial to preserve sediments
Modified from Hunt, 1996

11
Shale Source Rock Deposition Example 1
Photic zone
Oxygen levels in seawater

surface water: 6 ml/L dissolved
oxygen
anoxic conditions where oxygen
level falls below 0.2 ml/L
Oxygen Minimum Layer
(OML)
Position of the OML with respect to surface waters and
layer within water column that sediment-water interface. Sediments deposited where the
has lower dissolved oxygen than OML intersects the sediment-water interface will be least
water layers either above or oxygenated. If the OML is intensely developed,
below sediments will be anoxic.
Photic zone Euxinic Subbasin Example 2

zone from the surface to depth
below which photosynthesis no
longer occurs
A deep “silled basin” in which the sill intersects the

OML. Horizontal movement of low-oxygen water over
the sill keeps silled-basin sediments low in oxygen.
12
Barnett Shale Depositional Model—Types I, II Kerogen
FWB = Fort Worth Basin
From Loucks and Ruppel, 2007

13
Marine Source Rock Deposition
Good oil source rocks are deposited in marine settings, with high
organic productivity (= upwelling zones) (algal blooms)
14
Modern Coastal Upwelling Zones
West-facing continental margins

Hot colors = phytoplankton bloom caused by high nutrient
levels
Western Shelf, South Africa
Baja California, Mexico
15
Controls on Organic Preservation in Muddy Source Rocks
Tissot & Welte (1983) 16

Shale Source Rock Deposition
Good oil source rocks are deposited:
in deeper water settings (e.g., lakes, basin-floor environments)
during transgressive events = sea-level rises
Common stratigraphic position for marine source rocks:

Deep-water facies, transgressive strata
Emery & Myers (1996) 17

Burgess Shale Fauna—1909, Charles Wolcott
Wolcott Quarry, B.C., Canada

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgess_Shale
http://burgessshale.bc.ca/discoverburgessshale/introducti
on
18
Source Rock Deposition—Type 3 Kerogen
Coal-rich strata—woody, Type 3 kerogen is gas-prone
Coalbed methane is an economic energy source
Peat  Coal
~ 10:1
Tree
Type 3 kerogen commonly

occurs as dispersed
organic material in shale
Photo by M. Jackson 19
Gas Source Rocks
Gas source rocks are:
1. Dispersed Type 3 kerogens deposited in similar settings and
conditions as oil source rocks (Type 1 and/or 2 kerogens)
2. Coal-rich strata with woody, Type 3 kerogen; deposited in
terrestrial settings; May form coalbed methane, an economic
energy source van Krevelen Diagram
3. Type 1 and/or 2 kerogens subjected to higher maturity level
so out of ‘oil window’ and into ‘gas window’ (thermal
cracking of oil to methane).
1I
Oil-prone
2
II
III
3
Gas-prone
IV
4
20
Vertical Variability of Shale Total Organic Carbon and
Mineralogy
Passey et al. 2010
21
Organic-Rich Shale Cores
Laminated calcareous
mudstone
Bioturbated calcareous mudstone
2 ft
Core Description, Petrographic Analyses
22
Shale Source Rocks
Organic-rich shales
Dark brown to black color
Low porosity & permeability
1-10% (or more) Total Organic
Carbon (TOC)
Commonly well-laminated
Gamma-ray signature usually high
>140 API
Pyrite common in rocks (anoxic
muds where anaerobic bacteria
have been active)
Shales may be phosphatic
Organic-lean shales
Red-brown, tan to bluish or gray
± bioturbation (burrowing
organisms introduce Oxygen into
muds from overlying water column
CORE
23
Well Log Response—Barnett Shale, Texas, USA
From Loucks and Ruppel, 2007 24

Classification of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Richness
(Based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
Generation TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Potential (wt. %) (wt. %)
Poor 0.0–0.5 0.0–0.2
Fair 0.5–1.0 0.2–0.5
Good 1.0–2.0 0.5–1.0
Very Good 2.0–5.0 1.0–2.0
Excellent >5.0 >2.0
25
Classification of Organic Richness of Source Rocks
Boyer et al. 2006
26
Total Organic Content, Woodford Shale, USA
Anadarko Basin
Arkoma Basin
Source rock potential?
From Cardott, 2006; after Comer, 1992 27

Controls on Source Rocks
Sources of organic matter (OM) in sediments
Marine plants and animals
Terrestrial plants
Good source rock requires:
high rate of OM production in water column or high supply from outside of
basin
high preservation potential in sediments
Depositional Environment
Low energy environments best; allow mud to accumulate
Muddy sediments = limited diffusion of Oxygen into pore space =
preservation of OM
Balance between sediment accumulation rate and OM-preservation
 High sediment accumulation rate means OM buried rapidly, so pore waters can become
reducing quickly
 But high accumulation rate = dilution of OM (‘lean’ source rocks)
Good source rocks form in:

Oceans (slope and deeper water settings, ‘silled basins’)
Lakes (common in rift basins, intracontinental settings)
Swamps (coal) = gas-prone source rocks
28
Good oil source rocks are deposited during:
Warm global climate; oceans are poorly circulated then, so
anoxia at seafloor is more likely.
Long-term sea-level rise; more shelf areas flooded.
Source rocks through time Source-rock depositional

environments through time
29
Introduction
30
Kerogen
Original organic matter (OM) is transformed into kerogen

as it is buried and subjected to progressively higher temp.
and pressure.
Kerogen is defined as:
the organic material in sedimentary rocks that is insoluble in organic
solvents
under microscopic examination, kerogen appears as disseminated organic
fragments within sedimentary rocks
some kerogen is structured and recognizable as plant fragments, spores,
algae, and other pieces with definite biological origins = macerals
Bitumen is the organic matter in rocks that is soluble in
organic solvents.
31
Types of Kerogen and Their Hydrocarbon Potential
Kerogen Kerogen HC
Environment Origin
Type Form Potential
Alginite Algal bodies

I
Structureless debris
Aquatic Amorphous of algal origin
Kerogen Structureless planktonic Oil
material, primairly of
marine origin
II
Skins of spores and pollen,
Exinite cuticle of leaves and
herbaceous plants
Terrestrial Fibrous and woody plant Gas,
III Vitrinite fragments and structureless, some oil
colloidal humic matter Mainly gas
Inertinite Oxidized, recycled woody None

IV
debris
Modified from Senftle and Landis, 1991

32
Types of Organic Materials (OM) (Kerogens)
Original OM is transformed into kerogen as it is progressively buried
Bitumen: is the soluble organic matter in rocks
Kerogen is defined as:
the organic material in sedimentary rocks that is insoluble in organic solvents
under microscopic examination, kerogen appears as disseminated organic fragments within
sedimentary rocks
some kerogen is structured and recognizable as plant fragments, spores, algae, and other
pieces with definite biological origins
Kerogens types or Macerals (coal industry) are equivalent to minerals in
rocks:
Alginite algae (Type 1 kerogen)
Exinite pollen, spores (Type 2 kerogen)
Cutinite land-plant cuticle (Type 2 kerogen)
Resinite land-plant resins (Type 2 kerogen)
Liptinite all land-plant lipids; marine algae (Type 2 kerogen)
Vitrinite woody material from land plants (Type 3 kerogen)
Inertinite charcoal, highly oxidized material of any origin (Type 4 kerogen)
33
Coal Maceral Groups and Their Hydrocarbon Potential
From Boreman and Powell, 1993, after Stach and others, 1975
34
Some Kerogen Types
Alginite ~100 μm Vitrinite
35
Introduction
36
Common Thermal Maturity Indicators
Vitrinite reflectance (Ro)

Photometer attached to microscope measures amount of light reflected
from vitrinite maceral (Type III kerogen).
Pyrolysis Tmax
Temperature at which peak S2 (peak liquid hydrocarbon generation) occurs
during pyrolysis (Rock Eval method).
S2 peak represents the amount of hydrocarbon generated from kerogen in
the rock; measures the remaining generative capacity.
Thermal Alteration Index (TAI)
Measures alteration of palynomorphs (pollen, spores, etc.)
Conodont Alteration Index (CAI)
Measures color change in conodonts with thermal maturity.
Conodonts are teeth-like microfossils, common in deeper-water carbonate
facies of Cambrian-Triassic age; useful for stratigraphic correlation.
These thermal indicators (and others) have been cross-
correlated
37
Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro)—Thermal Maturity
Kerogen
Disseminated organic matter in
sedimentary rocks that is insoluble
in nonoxidizing acids, bases, and
Vitrinite organic solvents.
Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.
The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the

best indicators of coal rank and thermal
maturity of petroleum source rock.
Vitrinite Reflectance - Ro
Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal
38
Thermal Maturity, Fruitland Fm Coal, San Juan Basin, USA
GAS
OIL
Modified from Scott, 1993 39

Vitrinite Reflectance, Woodford Shale, Anadarko Basin
From Cardott, 2006; If Type 1 and/or 2 kerogen, where would

after Cardott, 1989 you explore for:
• Oil?
• gas? 38
40
Thermal Maturity Control on HC Fluids, Eagle Ford Shale, Texas, USA
Overburden to Top of Austin Eagle Ford Shale Play,

Group, Western Gulf South Texas
Province What Controls Reservoir Fluid Types and Abundances?
• Upper Cretaceous shale

• Regional source rock; kerogen Types 1 & 2 (some Type 3?)
• HC fluid composition varies with thermal maturity
Eagle Ford Shale

Modified from Condon and Dyman 2006
HC Fluids
Oil
Gas
200,ft
http://www.eogresources.com/media/slides/ac_st0410.pdf
EOG 2010
41
Thermal Maturity Control on HC Fluids, Eagle Ford Shale, Texas, USA
Eagle Ford Shale Gas-Oil Ratio,
First Three Months
Data from HPDI, retrieved in April 2011
Black Oil
Volatile Oil
Gas Condensate
25 Miles
Tian et al. 2011 Dry Gas
42
Pyrolysis—Thermal Maturity
Pyrolysis data can be used to:

1. Predict maturation level
2. Determine type of organic matter
3. Assess source rock potential and presence of
migrated HC
• Maturation level is indicated by S1/S2 and by
temperature of maximum generation of the second
pulse
• A plot of HI/OI is similar to Van Krevelan diagram
Van Krevelen Diagram

Type I - Alginite
0.5
CO 2 H O
1.5 VR Type II 2
Exinite
Oil
1.0 Oil Type III
1.0 Vitrinite
Gas
1.5
2.0
3.0
2.5 Evolutionary
0.5 Gas Type IV Pathway
4.0 (Increasing
Inertinite
Burial/Temperature)
4.0 3.7 3.5 Vitrinite

VR =
TAI Reflectance
0 Thermal
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 TAI = Alteration
Atomic O:C Ratio Index
From Milner, 1982;
43
Conodont Coloration—Thermal Maturity
Conodonts - microfossils from a group of extinct, soft-bodied marine
invertebrates. They are phosphatic in composition and probably
served as head parts that grasped food.
From Anita Harris, USG

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conodont_Alteration_Index
44
Thermal Alteration Index (TAI)—Thermal Maturity
1 4
2 5
3 6
From Humble Geochemical

45
Thermal Maturity Correlation Chart
From Humble Geochemical

46
Comparison of Commonly Used Maturation Measures
0.2 65 1
Weight % Carbon in Kerogen

Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) %
0.3 70
Spore Coloration Index (SCI)

2
0.4
Pyrolysis T max(C)
0.5 75
Incipient Oil Generation 3
0.6 430
0.7 80
0.8 4
0.9 OIL Max. Oil Generated 85 5
1.0 450
1.2 Wet 6
1.3 Gas 7 465
Oil Floor Dry 90 8
2.0 Gas Max. Dry Gas 9
Generated 10
Wet Gas Floor
3.0
Dry Gas Floor
4.0 95
Modified from Foster and Beaumont, 1991; after Dow and O’Connor, 1982)
47
Initial Oil and Gas Generation—Oil and Gas Windows
Formation of oil and/or gas depends on:

1. kerogen type;
2. temperature; and
3. rate of burial.
Therefore, values in the following table are average values.
Incipient Peak Floor

Production Production (Ro)
(Ro) (Ro)
Oil 0.6 1.0 1.3

Gas 0.8 1.2–1.8 3.0
48
Van Krevelen Diagram
0.5
Type I - Alginite
CO 2 H2 O
1.5 VR Type II
Exinite
Atomic H:C Ratio
Oil
1.0 Oil
Type III
1.0 Vitrinite
Gas
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0 Evolutionary
0.5
Gas Type IV Pathway
4.0 Inertinite (Increasing
Burial/Temperature)
4.0
3.7 3.5
VR = Vitrinite
TAI Reflectance
0 Thermal
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 TAI = Alteration
Atomic O:C Ratio Index
49
Van Krevelen Diagrams
Type I
I
Oil-prone Oil-prone
II
Type II
Gas-prone III
IV
Gas-prone
Type III
Type IV
van Krevelen Modified van Krevelen

Made using results of Pyrolysis
50
Oil & Gas Windows
Temperature increases with
increasing depth in Earth’s crust.
Earth’s heat generates and
ultimately destroys petroleum.
Oil window ≅ 60-175° C
Gas window ≅ 100-300° C
Position of oil & gas windows
within a basin-fill depends on
type of organic matter and
heating rate.
Thermal maturity is a function of
both time and temperature
Same thermal maturity can be
reached by a rock at high T, but
short amount of time, as a rock at
lower T, but much longer time.
Typical temperature ranges

at which oil and gas are generated
51
Oil & Gas Windows
Thermal Maturity
Type 3 Kerogen1
Types 1, 2 Kerogen
‘Stability’ ranges of various hydrocarbons as a function of kerogen type and Ro

* Resinite and liptonite are Type 2, oil-prone kerogens
52
Depth to Oil & Gas Windows May Vary
PZOF =
‘Principal zone
of oil formation’
ZGF =
Zone of gas
formation by
thermal
cracking
Tissot & Welte (1983)
Depth of oil & gas windows vary among basins, depending on

geothermal gradient, kerogen type, and duration of heating.
53
Thermal Maturity and HC Types, Barnett Shale, Texas,
USA
54
Thermal Maturity, Eastern Smackover Trend, USA
MISS. ALABAMA
MISS. ALABAMA
~ N. Frisco City
Field
~ N. Frisco City
Mississippi
Field
Salt Basin
FL
Conecuh
FL
Embayment
FL
Mobile Bay
Simplified from Sassen and Moore, 1988

55
T(max) vs. Depth Eastern Smackover Trend, Alabama, USA
Modified from Wade and others, 1987

56
Pyrolysis T(max), Smackover Fm, Eastern Trend.
Alabama, USA
Crude Oil
Gas Condensate
Methane
Modified from Sassen and Moore, 1988

57
Gas Generation from Sapropelic and Humic Matter
Sapropelic Humic
Source Source
Sapropelic =
Diagenesis
Types 1,2 Kerogen
Types 1 & 2 kerogen
Type 3 Kerogen
Humic = Type 3
kerogen
Catagenesis
Metamorphism
Relative yield of gas from organic
matter in fine-grained sediments
From Rightmire, 1984; after Hunt, 1979

58
Isotopic Characterization of Gases
Gulf
Coast
Wilcox
Fort Union CBM USGS-PA-2
(Warwick et al., 2000) (Warwick
and others,
2000)
Fermentation
Thermal
Modified from Kotabarba and Rice, 1993; after Whiticar and others, 1986
59
Thermal Maturity Key Questions
Are thermal maturity maps available or are there

sufficient data to make these maps?
Has the organic material produced thermogenic

hydrocarbons? Is Ro > 0.6 (oil window) or 0.78 (gas
window)?
What is the relationship between maturation level and

present burial depth?
Is there evidence for biogenic gas?
60
Source Rock Evaluation
Questions about source rocks:

Generative capacity?
Function of total organic carbon (TOC), volume of source rock, kerogen
type, and thermal maturity
Thermal maturity?
Function of burial temperatures and amount of time rock exposed to
those temperatures
Petroleum generation?
Type?
Quantity?
Where in the basin?
Timing of generation?
Expulsion efficiency?
Did the hydrocarbons migrate?
61
Introduction
62
Primary migration—Movement of hydrocarbons

through a fine-grained source rock (expulsion)

through permeable formations and fractures owing
to buoyancy, pressure differences or diffusion

63
Physical Changes with Burial, Shale and Hydrocarbons
With increasing burial
depth:
Pore-fluid pressure and
temperature increase
Temperature increase
depends on geothermal
gradient
Porosity decreases
Pore size decreases
Sediments compact
Size of organic
molecules also
decreases with thermal
cracking of
hydrocarbons
Tissot & Welte (1983) 64

Shale Dry-Bulk Density & Porosity vs. Depth, a Normally
Pressured Well, Frio County, Texas, USA
Primarily
~7,100 ft Mechanical
Compaction
(90 – 110o C; 65 wells, GOM)

~10,900 ft
Primarily
Chemical
Compaction
Low porosities in Stage 2
• Cementation
• Pres. solution
of this well are attributed
• Recrystallization to presence of carbonates
and red shales with
kaolinite
Data from
1 well
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Powley, 1993

65
Clay Minerals, Bound Water, and Pore Water In Gulf of
Mexico Basin Shales
7,100 Feet 10,900 Feet
Dry
Smectite
Pore
Bound
Water
Water Illite
Illite Other Clays Other Clays

And And
Minerals Minerals
Modified from Bruce, 1984
66
Shale Pore Diameters Classification
IUPAC Pore Classification
Macropores > 50 nanometers (10-9 m)
Mesopores = 2–50 nanometers
Micropores = 0.8–2 nanometers
Ultramicropores < 0.8 nanometers
67
Cumulative Pore Width Distribution, Cherokee Shale,
Oklahoma, USA
Approx. 30% pores > 10 nm
Curve A – SANS data, Vonk’s method (1976)

Curve B – Nitrogen desorption
Curve C – Mercury porosimetry
Approx. 20% pores < 4.5 nm
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Hall et al., 1986
68
Median Pore Diameters and Porosities, Selected Shale
Source Rocks
Shale Pore dia. (nm) Porosity (%)
Bakken, North Dakotaa 5 4-3

Cherokee, Oklahomaa 7 5.2
Monterey, Californiab 10 8.5
Monterey, Californiab 16 12.7
Tertiary, U.S. Gulf Coastb 20 15
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Hall et al., 1986a ; and J. Popek, personal commun. b
69
Effective Molecular Diameters, Selected Reservoir Fluids
Molecule ~Diameter, nm
Water 0.40
Nitrogen 0.30
Methane 0.41
Carbon dioxide 0.47
C2H6 0.55
C2H6 0.65
Modified from Hunt, 1979; 1996
70
Effective Molecular Diameters of Some Reservoir Fluids
Molecule Diameter, nm
Water ~0.3
Methane 0.38
n-Alkanes 0.47
Cyclohexane 0.48
Complex ring structures 1–3
Asphaltene molecules 5–10
Large HC molecules will be unable to migrate through

smallest shale pores.
Small paraffinic and naphthenic molecules migrate
from shales more readily than do large aromatic-
asphaltic molecules.
Shales may act as molecular sieves.
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Welte, 1972
71
Expulsion Efficiencies of Normal and Isoprinoid Alkanes, Thin
Shale to Adjacent Sandstone, Paleocene Firkanten Fm, Norway
From Hunt, 1996; after Leythaeuser et al., 1984
72
Driving Force for Primary Migration: Hydrocarbon
Generation
Initial Source Rock Hydrocarbon Migration
BURIAL
Shale Shale
Water-saturated pores Organic matter

Hydrocarbon-saturated pores Natural fracture
and microfractures
Hydrocarbon migration
Modified from Tissot & Welte (1983)
73
Permeability vs. Depth for Tertiary Shales
Microfractures
forming? Shale matrix permeability
ranges between 10-8 and
1 md
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Neglia, 1997 74

Permeability of Shale Source Rock
• Source rock matrix permeability: 10-8 - 1 md
• Fracture permeability ∝ Wf3
Area = 1 mi2
K = 10-8 md
Shale
Fracture
Fluid passing thru 1 mi2 matrix
Width =
6 X 10-4 cm Fluid passing thru 1 fracture
Microfracture
Q = Q
Information from Hunt, 1996; after R.W. Jones, personal commun.
75
Fracture (Face Cleat) Domains, San Juan Basin, USA
In Situ Stress
• Systematic
Macro- Fractures
fractures • 2 Fracture
Domains
Joints are
natural
fractures in
rocks; in
coals they
are called 10
5
“cleat”
Information from Tremain and others, 1994 76

Force to Expel HC From Source Rock is Generated by
Volume Expansion of Kerogen + Fluids
Source rocks tend

Increasing Thermal Maturity, Time
a. Kerogen to be brittle
Volume expansion
generates force
that opens
existing fractures
Kerogen Oil
Oil and
and
b. and creates new
Condensate
Condensate
fractures, and
expels HC
Results in
overpressure
c. Kerogen Gas Modified from Hunt, 1996
Total Volume, Kerogen + Fluids

77
Primary Migration
Primary Migration—Movement of fluids within a

fine-grained source rock
Driving Force—hydrocarbon generation
Methods
Gas Phase
Oil Phase
Solution (relevant for only small, soluble HC)
Diffusion (relevant for only small, soluble HC)
78
Primary Migration Methods*
Gas Phase
Gas density is low—very buoyant
Gas may dissolve and transport liquid HC; amount of heavier HC
dissolved is temperature and pressure dependent
Can account for only some oil deposits
At high temperature (above critical point), all HC may exist in a single
phase
Oil Phase
Organic material may form a continuous bitumen and oil network in
shale and result in oil-wet rock, or mixed wetting, which may facilitate
oil migration
CO2 will facilitate oil migration by lowering oil viscosity and interfacial
tension
Methane will lower the oil viscosity and density
These transport methods carry over to secondary migration
* Are most rocks water-wet or HC-wet?

79
Primary Migrations Methods (Cont.)
Diffusion (relevant for only small, soluble HC)

Migration from high to low concentration areas
Methane; 1740 m in 140 million years (Smith et al., 1971)
Little evidence for significant diffusion of HC molecules larger than ethane
Solution (relevant for only small, soluble HC)

Important only to methane, ethane, and small aromatic HC, benzene and
toluene
Solubility varies with temperature, pressure, and salinity
80
Solubility of Gasoline-Range Hydrocarbons In Pure Water
at STP
Hydrocarbon Solubility, ppm

n-Pentane 40
n-Hexane 9.5
n-Heptane 2.2
n-Octane 0.4
n-Nonane 0.12
Cyclopentane 160
Cyclohexane 67
Methylcyclohexane 16
Benzene 1,740
Toluene 554
Orthoxylene 167
81
Solubility of Methane with Depth as a Function of
Pressure, Salinity, and Temperature
Solubility of gases in water decreases with increased temperature and salinity of water and increases
with pressure. Here, pressure is the dominant factor.
82
Example of TerraTek Tight Rock Analysis for Shale
Reservoirs
Boyer et al. 2006
83
Critical Reservoir Parameters for Shale Gas
Boyer et al. 2006
84
Source Rock Summary
Hydrocarbons are derived from organic-rich source rocks
These source rocks may be self-sourcing reservoirs, such as shales,
fine-grained carbonates, or coal beds
Some organic materials (kerogens) are oil-prone and some are gas
prone
Source rocks are deposited in low-energy, anoxic settings
Because they are fine-grained, source rock have high capillary
displacement pressure and low permeability
Temperature and pressure increases associated with burial result in
HC generation, fluid volume expansion, hydrocarbon overpressure,
and expulsion (primary migration)
Gamma ray and other well logs may be used to calculate TOC and
thermal maturity
TOC and thermal maturity can be mapped to assess probability of
presence and distribution gas and oil
During burial and compaction, source rock density increases and
porosity decreases to some minimum value
85
Introduction
86
Cross Section of Deer-Boar Petroleum System
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
O
O O
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
Sedimentary
System Essential
Basin Fill
Elements Seal Rock
of Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Basement Rock
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window
87
Primary migration—Movement of hydrocarbons

through a fine-grained source rock (expulsion)

through permeable formations and fractures owing
to buoyancy, pressure differences or diffusion

88
Secondary Migration
Driving Force—Hydrocarbon buoyancy
Resisting Force—Capillary Pressure
Modifying Forces—Hydrodynamic fluid flow and pressure

compartments
Pathways—Permeable formations, fractures (joints and

faults), and unconformities
89
Secondary Migration
Fluids must migrate from pore to pore

Capillary pressure opposes buoyancy force of petroleum
Berg (1975); Tissot & Welte (1983)
90
Water-Wet vs. Oil-Wet Reservoir
WATER-WET OIL-WET
Air
OIL Oil OIL
θ
θ
θ WATER θ WATER
θ < 90°
WATER WATER θ > 90°
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER
OIL
GRAIN GRAIN
OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001
91
Capillary Displacement Curves for 3 Reservoirs
Modified fom Levorsen, 1967
Curve 3
1 2 3 Sandstone, gradation in grain
Capillary Pressure (Pc), Atmospheres, etc.
size and pores; clay and other

matrix material
Curve 2
Typical of limestone or
dolomite;
k=15-25 md
Curve 1
Clean, well-sorted, sand;
Irreducible Water Saturation
k=100-200 md
Which is most likely to

be a conventional
reservoir?
Displacement Pressure
be a tight sand reservoir?
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw, (%)
92
Capillary Displacement Pressure of Water Against Oil
From Levorsen, 1967

For further understanding, search:
Capillary pressure
Drainage
Inbibition
Relative permeability
Wettability
93
Variation in Pore Properties and Permeability within a
Formation

be a conventional
reservoir?

be a tight sand reservoir?
STORAGE FLOW
Modfied from Jordan and Campbell, 1984, vol. 1

94
Entrapment
Confinement of hydrocarbons at faults, formation

boundaries, or pinch-outs owing to capillary pressure that
exceeds buoyant forces
95
Hydrocarbon Seals
Low-permeability formations
hydrates
shales
evaporites
asphalt
Faults (may be sealing, transmissive, or both)

Stratigraphic pinch-outs
Unconformities (may be sealing or transmissive)
Hydrodynamic trapping
96
Generation, Migration, and Trapping of Oil
Unconformity Seal
Fault
X X
(impermeable)
X OWC
X HC Migration
Seal
Reservoir
Oil Rock
Accumulation
Top of
Oil Window
Source Rock
97
Domal Trap
Structure Map—Elevation of Fm Top Relative to S.L
Questions to ask:
.
• Are hydrocarbons in this field oil
or gas?
• What is the volume of hydrocarbons
in this trap?
• What are the reserves?
Closure. In map view (top),
closure is the area within the
deepest structural contour
that forms a trapping
geometry, in this case 1300
ft [390 m]. In cross section
A-A', closure is the vertical
distance from the top of the
Structure Cross Section
structure to the lowest
closing contour, in this case
about 350 ft [105 m]. The
point beyond which
hydrocarbons could leak
from or migrate beyond the
trap is the spill point.
98 From Schlumberger Oil Field Glossary

Structural Trap—Map and Cross-Sectional Views
MAP
VIEW
CROSS
SECTION
Oil Saturated
Oil Saturated
Reservoir
Reservoir
OWC
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Schowalter, 1979

99
Structural Trap—Map and Cross-Sectional Views
(Cont.)
Risk of leakage is
greater than for an
anticlinal trap
OWC
Laminated
Strata
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Schowalter, 1979 100

Hydrodynamic Trap
OIL
Entrained oil and gas
moved by buoyant forces
Water Direction of water flow

and lower fluid potential
OWC
Modified from Levorsen, 1967

101
Introduction
102
Petroleum System—A Definition
A petroleum system is a dynamic hydrocarbon generating system,

functioning in a geologic space and time scale.
A conventional petroleum system requires the timely convergence of

geologic elements and events essential to the formation of petroleum
deposits.
*These include:
Mature source rock
Expulsion
Secondary migration
Accumulation in a trap
Retention
* Applies to conventional reservoirs
Modified from Demaison and Huizinga, 1994
103
Cross Section of a Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
O O O
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Sedimentary
System Essential Overburden Rock
Basin Fill
Elements Seal Rock
of Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Basement Rock
(arrows indicate relative fault motion) Top Gas Window
104
Lower Pliocene Progradational Play, Northern Gulf of
Mexico
Louisiana
Mississippi
Delta
Gulf of Mexico
A'
Field (prospect) N
0 10mi
Play boundary
Modified from Bascle and others, 1997
105
Cross Section - Plio-Pleistocene Plays, Gulf of Mexico
A A’
Northwest Sea Level Prospects Southeast
Rollover Anticline
Pleistocene
Pliocene H.W.
Pinch-out
F.W.
Trap
Biozones
Trimosina A Growth Fault
High-side
Pleistocene Hyalinea B
Fault Trap
(0.01-2.6 Ma) Angulogerina B Sandstone-rich lithofacies
Pliocene Lenticulina 1
(2.6-5.5 Ma) Buliminella 1 Shale-rich lithofacies
Miocene Robulus E No scale
(5.3-23 Ma)
106
Misoa/La Luna Petroleum System, Lake Maracaibo,
Venezuela
Caribbean MARACAIBO
Sea
N
Barranquilla
Maracaibo
Lake
Maracaibo I
VENEZUELA
COLOMBIA II E
IX X VII
XV III
VI
XI
V VII
XIII
W
LAKE
BLOCK MARACAIBO
V
VLE - 196
AREA
107
Stratigraphic Column, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela
Q Recent
How do hydrocarbons
U La Puerta Fm.
migrate from La Luna Fm
Miocene
M La Gunillas Fm.
Regional Seal
to Misoa Fm?
L La Rosa Fm.
Teritary
“B” Sands
Misoa Fm.
M
Eocene
C-1 U
“C” Sands
C-2 Primary Reservoirs

L C-3
L C-4
C-5
Unconformity
Paleo. Guasare Fm.
Colon Fm.
Cretaceous
U
La Luna Fm. Source Rock
Cogollo Gp.
L Rio Negro Fm.
Basement
108
Misoa/La Luna Petroleum System
Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela
From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary
Source Rock
Trap Formation
109
Seismic Inline 715 – VLE 196 Field, Lake Maracaibo,
Venezuela
GR
110
Long-Distance Lateral Hydrocarbon Migration, Eastern
Venezuela
Oil
Cretaceous source rock; great lateral migration. Heavy oil due to water washing
and/or biodegradation.
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Demaison, 1977 and Roadifer, 1987
111
Long-Distance Lateral Hydrocarbon Migration,
W. Canada Sedimentary Basin
WEST EAST
Multiple source rocks and reservoirs; great lateral transport distances. Heavy oil due
to Water-washing and biodegradation.
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Demaison, 1977 and Roadifer, 1987
112
Vertical Migration, Tor and SE Tor Fields, Central
Graben, S. Norwegian North Sea
11% 1.5%
Ls
Sh
SALT
Tor is estimated to have trapped 11% of generated HC, whereas SE Tor

trapped only 1.5% owing to a salt dome that blocks HC migration paths
Modified from Hunt, 1996; after Leonard, 1989
113
Credits
Developer
Walt Ayers, Ph.D., Petroleum Geologist, Professional Geologist, Petroleum
Engineering/Texas A&M University
Contributors
Mussa Achimo, Ph.D., Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Head of Department
of Geology
Tom Blasingame, Ph.D., Texas A&M Petroleum Engineering/Geology
Roger Reagan, Ph.D., Anadarko Director Geophysics
Tom Griffith, Anadarko Director, Geology
Susanne Rothschild, Instructional Designer
Sponsor
114

Geoscience for Petroleum Engineers: Hydrocarbon Origins, Migration, and Entrapment

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Geoscience for Petroleum Engineers: Hydrocarbon Origins, Migration, and Entrapment

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Geoscience for Petroleum Engineers

Module 10: Hydrocarbon Origins, Migration, and Entrapment

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

Modified from Demaison and Huizinga, 1994

Modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994

Source rocks and thermal maturation

Primary migration—Movement of hydrocarbons through a

Secondary migration—Movement of hydrocarbons

Entrapment—Confinement of hydrocarbons at faults,

This produced various hydrocarbons including methane, the main constituent of

Petroleum or hydrocarbons are primarily made up of Hydrogen (H) and

Fine-grained clastics (clay and silt) and/or carbonates

Usual Conditions Favoring Source Rock Origins

Modified from Hunt, 1996

Oxygen levels in seawater

Photic zone Euxinic Subbasin Example 2

A deep “silled basin” in which the sill intersects the

FWB = Fort Worth Basin

From Loucks and Ruppel, 2007

West-facing continental margins

Baja California, Mexico

Tissot & Welte (1983) 16

Common stratigraphic position for marine source rocks:

Emery & Myers (1996) 17

Wolcott Quarry, B.C., Canada

Type 3 kerogen commonly

Passey et al. 2010

Core Description, Petrographic Analyses

From Loucks and Ruppel, 2007 24

Fair 0.5–1.0 0.2–0.5

Good 1.0–2.0 0.5–1.0

Very Good 2.0–5.0 1.0–2.0

Excellent >5.0 >2.0

Boyer et al. 2006

Source rock potential?

From Cardott, 2006; after Comer, 1992 27

Good source rocks form in:

Source rocks through time Source-rock depositional

Original organic matter (OM) is transformed into kerogen

Alginite Algal bodies

Inertinite Oxidized, recycled woody None

Modified from Senftle and Landis, 1991

Alginite ~100 μm Vitrinite

Vitrinite reflectance (Ro)

The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the

Modified from Scott, 1993 39

From Cardott, 2006; If Type 1 and/or 2 kerogen, where would

Overburden to Top of Austin Eagle Ford Shale Play,

• Upper Cretaceous shale

Eagle Ford Shale

Pyrolysis data can be used to:

Van Krevelen Diagram

4.0 3.7 3.5 Vitrinite

From Milner, 1982;

From Anita Harris, USG

From Humble Geochemical

From Humble Geochemical

Weight % Carbon in Kerogen

Spore Coloration Index (SCI)

Formation of oil and/or gas depends on:

Incipient Peak Floor

Oil 0.6 1.0 1.3

van Krevelen Modified van Krevelen